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d under guard by rail to allis chalmers in milwaukee wisconsin where they were wound onto magnetic coils and sealed into welded casings 66 finally they moved by unguarded flatcars to the clinton engineer works there special procedures were instituted for handling the silver when they had to drill holes in it they did so over paper so that the filings could be collected after the war all the machinery was dismantled and cleaned and the floorboards beneath the machinery were ripped up and burned to recover minute amounts of silver in the end 155 645 39 troy ounces 4 841 113 kg or less than 0 036 was lost 65 67 68 in may 1970 the last 67 short tons 61 tonnes 2 000 000 troy ounces of silver was replaced with copper and returned to the treasury 69 the xax racetrack with two tanks and three coils was ready to train workers in august 1943 bugs were discovered but were not aggressively followed up the first alpha process building 9201 1 was completed on 1 november 1943 when the first racetrack was started up for testing on schedule in november the 14 ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment by as much as 3 inches 8 cm because of the power of the magnets and had to be fastened more securely a more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out in december groves ordered a magnet broken open and handfuls of rust were found inside moisture was also a problem in its own right as was the winding of the wire which was too tight groves ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned and rewound 62 70 rigid standards for preparation and cleanliness were instituted to prevent a recurrence of these problems 71 training for the beta tracks shifted from the xax to the xbx training and development racetrack in november 1943 72 a second alpha i racetrack became operational in january 1944 the first beta racetrack and the third and first alpha racetracks now repaired became operational in march 1944 and the fourth alpha racetrack in april 1944 a third building 9201 3 contained a fifth racetrack that incorporated some modifications and was known as alpha i 1 2 this became operational on 3 june 1944 work on the alpha and beta chemistry buildings 9202 and 9203 commenced in february 1943 and was completed in september work on the beta process building 9204 1 began in may 1943 and was ready for operation on 13 march 1944 but was not completed until september 1944 73 74 75 groves authorized alpha ii in september 1943 this consisted of two new alpha process buildings 9201 4 and 9201 5 another beta 9204 2 an extension to the alpha chemistry building and a new beta chemistry building 9206 when 9206 opened the old beta chemistry building 9203 was converted into a laboratory work started on the new alpha ii process buildings on 2 november 1943 the first racetrack was completed in july 1944 and all four were operational by 1 october 1944 the alpha ii racetracks were configured in a linear layout rather than an oval although they were still called racetracks 73 74 75 in all there were 864 alpha calutrons arranged in nine racetracks of 96 there were only 36 calutrons in each beta racetrack for a total of 288 calutrons although only 216 of them were ever operated 57 work on the new beta process building commenced on 20 october 1943 equipment installation began on 1 april 1944 and it was ready for use on 10 september 1944 a third beta process building 9204 3 was authorized in may 1944 to process the output of the k 25 gaseous diffusion plant it was completed on 15 may 1945 a fourth beta process building 9204 4 was authorized on 2 april 1945 and was completed by 1 december 1945 a new group of alpha chemistry buildings known as the 9207 group was commenced in june 1944 but work was halted in june 1945 before they were completed along with these main buildings there were offices workshops warehouses and other structures there were two steam plants for heating and a power plant for electricity 75 73 operations edit beta racetrack these second stage racetracks were smaller than the alpha racetracks and contained fewer process bins note that the oval shape of the alpha i racetrack has been abandoned for ease of servicing the alpha racetracks were a 24 fold magnification of the xa calutron that could hold 96 calutron alpha tanks the calutrons were upright and arrayed facing each other in pairs of inner and outer machines to minimize magnetic losses and to economize on steel consumption the assembly was curved into an oval shape that formed a closed magnetic loop 122 feet 37 m long 77 feet 23 m wide and 15 feet 4 6 m high in the shape of a racetrack hence the name 39 the two alpha i buildings 9201 1 and 9201 2 each contained two racetracks with only one in the alpha i 1 2 9201 3 the beta racetracks were smaller linear in shape and optimized for recovery rather than production with only 36 instead of 96 process bins the four alpha ii racetracks were also linear in configuration they incorporated many improvements the most important being that they had four sources instead of just two 73 75 they also had improved magnets and vacuum systems 76 tennessee eastman was hired to manage y 12 on the usual cost plus fixed fee basis with a fee of 22 500 per month plus 7 500 per racetrack for the first seven racetracks and 4 000 per additional racetrack workers were recruited in the knoxville area the typical recruit was a young woman a recent graduate of a local high school training was initially conducted at the university of tennessee training switched to berkeley from april to september 1943 where it was conducted on the xa calutron and a 1 16 scale model of the alpha racetrack and then to oak ridge when the xax calutron became available some 2 500 operators would be required once all the alpha ii calutrons were available the tennessee eastman payroll at y 12 ballooned from 10 000 in mid 1944 to 22 482 in august 1945 for security reasons the trainees were not informed of the purpose of the equipment they were taught to operate 77 78 alpha ii racetrack there were four of these the calutrons were initially operated by scientists from berkeley to remove bugs and achieve a reasonable operating rate then the tennessee eastman operators took over nichols compared unit production data and pointed out to lawrence that the young hillbilly girl operators were outproducing his ph ds they agreed to a production race and lawrence lost a morale boost for the calutron girls called cubicle operators at the time and their supervisors the women were trained like soldiers not to reason why while the scientists could not refrain from time consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials 79 for a while the calutrons suffered from a series of debilitating breakdowns and equipment failures exacerbated by a shortage of spare parts hopes that the alpha ii racetracks would be more reliable soon faded as they were plagued by insulator failures these problems were gradually overcome the first shipments of enriched uranium to the manhattan project s los alamos laboratory were made in march 1944 consisting of alpha product enriched to 13 to 15 percent uranium 235 while of no use in a bomb it was urgently required for experiments with enriched uranium the last shipment of alpha product was made on 11 may 1944 on 7 june 1944 y 12 made its first delivery of weapons grade beta product enriched to as high as 89 uranium 235 77 80 a major problem was that of loss of feed material and product only 1 part in 5 825 of the feed material became finished product about 90 percent was splattered over the feed bottles or vacuum tanks the problem was particularly acute with the enriched feed of the beta calutrons extraordinary efforts were made to recover product including burning the carbon receiver liners to recover the uranium in them despite everything some 17 4 percent of alpha product and 5 4 percent of beta product was lost frank spedding from the manhattan project s ames laboratory and philip baxter from the british mission were sent to advise on improvements to recovery methods 81 the death of a worker from exposure to phosgene also prompted a search for a safer production process 40 in february 1945 slightly enriched 1 4 percent uranium 235 feed material began arriving from the s 50 liquid thermal diffusion plant shipments of product from s 50 were discontinued in april s 50 product was fed into k 25 instead 82 in march 1945 y 12 began receiving feed enriched to 5 percent from k 25 83 the output of these plants was in the form of uranium hexafluoride uf 6 it was converted to uranium trioxide which then went into the usual process for conversion to uranium tetrachloride 84 on 5 august 1945 k 25 started producing feed enriched to 23 percent enough to be fed straight into the beta racetracks the remaining alpha product was then fed into k 25 by september 1945 the calutrons had produced 88 kilograms of product with an average enrichment of 84 5 percent and the beta racetracks turned out another 953 kilograms enriched to 95 percent by the end of the year 83 enriched uranium from the calutrons provided the fissile component of the little boy atomic bomb used in the atomic bombing of hiroshima in august 1945 39 85 manhattan project electromagnetic project costs through 31 december 1946 86 site cost 1946 usd cost 2025 usd of total construction 304 million 5 02 billion 53 operations 240 million 3 97 billion 41 9 research 19 6 million 324 million 3 4 design 6 63 million 109 million 1 2 silver program 2 48 million 41 million 0 4 total 573 million 9 46 billion with the war over the alpha tracks began to suspend operations on 4 september 1945 and ceased operation completely on 22 september the last two beta tracks went into full operation in november and december 1945 processing feed from k 25 and the new k 27 gaseous diffusion plant 87 by may 1946 studies suggested that the gaseous diffusion plants could fully enrich the uranium by themselves without accidentally creating a critical mass 88 after a trial demonstrated that this was the case groves ordered all but one beta track shut down in december 1946 89 the total cost of the electromagnetic project up to the end of the manhattan project on 31 december 1946 was 673 million equivalent to 11 1 billion in 2025 86 postwar years edit calutron silver coils prior to their being melted down and returned to the us treasury the workforce at y 12 dropped from a wartime peak of 22 482 on 21 august 1945 to less than 1 700 in 1949 69 all the calutrons were removed and dismantled except for the xax and xbx training tracks in building 9731 and the beta 3 racetracks in building 9204 3 90 91 in 1947 eugene wigner the director of the oak ridge national laboratory ornl asked the atomic energy commission for permission to use the beta calutrons to produce isotopes for physics experiments permission was granted and a wide range of isotopes was produced lithium 6 from the beta calutrons was used for research into thermonuclear weapons many other isotopes were used for peaceful scientific and medical purposes 92 the beta 3 racetracks were transferred to the ornl in march 1950 91 by the mid 1950s the beta calutrons had produced quantities of all the naturally occurring stable isotopes except those of osmium which had to wait until april 1960 93 the calutrons continued to produce isotopes until 1998 94 as of 2015 update they are still on standby 95 other countries edit soviet union and china edit like the united states the soviet union ussr carried out research on multiple enrichment technologies for the soviet atomic bomb project a trial electromagnetic process was carried out in 1946 with a calutron using a magnet taken from germany a site was chosen for an electromagnetic plant at sverdlovsk 45 in 1946 the pilot plant known as plant 418 was completed in 1948 a more efficient design was developed in which the particle beams were bent by 225 instead of 180 as in the american calutron it was used to complete the uranium enrichment process after technical difficulties were encountered with the gaseous diffusion process uranium enriched to about 40 percent uranium 235 was brought to sverdlovsk 45 for final enrichment to between 92 and 98 percent after the problems with the gaseous diffusion process were resolved in 1950 it was decided not to proceed with a full scale electromagnetic plant 96 97 as of 2009 update it remains operational 91 in 1969 a research calutron known as s 2 was built at arzamas 16 for high efficiency separation of isotopes of heavy elements like plutonium 96 98 99 four research and production calutrons were built at the china institute of atomic energy in beijing of identical design to those of the ussr in the early 1960s 100 101 102 united kingdom edit in 1945 the british atomic bomb project built a 180 calutron similar in design to an american beta calutron at the atomic energy research establishment at harwell oxfordshire owing to the success of the gaseous diffusion plant at capenhurst electromagnetic separation was not pursued by the united kingdom and the calutron was used to separate isotopes for research the 180 design was not ideal for this purpose so harwell built a 90 calutron hermes the heavy elements and radioactive material electromagnetic separator 103 it was inspired by france s sidonie and paris separators at the laboratoire rené bernas of the university of paris ix in orsay and parsifal at the military research laboratory of the commissariat à l énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives in bruyères le châtel 104 105 israel japan and france edit israel japan and france also built some research calutrons including the solis and meira separators at the soreq nuclear research center there is also cern s isotope separator on line detector isolde which was built in 1967 106 india edit a calutron at the saha institute of nuclear physics at bidhan nagar in india was used to produce plutonium for india s first nuclear test on 18 may 1974 96 107 iraq edit after the 1990 91 gulf war unscom determined that iraq had been pursuing a calutron program to enrich uranium 108 iraq chose to develop the electromagnetic process over more modern economic and efficient methods of enrichment because calutrons were easier to build with fewer technical challenges and the components required to build them were not subject to export controls 109 110 at the time the program was discovered iraq was estimated to be two or three years away from producing enough material for nuclear weapons the program was destroyed in the gulf war 111 consequently the nuclear suppliers group added the electromagnetic separation equipment to its guidelines for transfers of nuclear related dual use equipment material and technology 112 113 notes edit hewlett anderson 1962 pp 10 12 stuewer 1985 pp 211 214 smyth 1945 p 172 nier alfred o booth e t dunning j r von grosse a march 1940 nuclear fission 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