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2 resistance to quinine spurred the development of a broad array of antimalarial medications through the 20th century including chloroquine proguanil atovaquone sulfadoxine pyrimethamine mefloquine and artemisinin 32 in all cases parasites resistant to a given drug have emerged within a few decades of the drugs deployment 32 to combat this antimalarial drugs are frequently used in combination with artemisinin combination therapies currently the gold standard for treatment 33 in general antimalarial drugs target the life stages of plasmodium parasites that reside within vertebrate red blood cells as these are the stages that tend to cause disease 34 however drugs targeting other stages of the parasite life cycle are under development in order to prevent infection in travelers and to prevent transmission of sexual stages to insect hosts 35 a clinic for treating human malaria in tanzania over 3000 species of lizard including the carolina anole anolis carolinensis carry some 90 kinds of malaria insects edit the mosquito anopheles stephensi is among the blood feeding insects that can be infected by a species of plasmodium in addition to a vertebrate host all plasmodium species also infect a bloodsucking insect host generally a mosquito although some reptile infecting parasites are transmitted by sandflies mosquitoes of the genera culex anopheles culiseta mansonia and aedes act as insect hosts for various plasmodium species the best studied of these are the anopheles mosquitoes which host the plasmodium parasites of human malaria as well as culex mosquitoes which host the plasmodium species that cause malaria in birds only female mosquitoes are infected with plasmodium since only they feed on the blood of vertebrate hosts 36 different species affect their insect hosts differently sometimes insects infected with plasmodium have reduced lifespan and reduced ability to produce offspring 37 further some species of plasmodium appear to cause insects to prefer to bite infected vertebrate hosts over non infected hosts 37 38 39 history edit charles louis alphonse laveran first described parasites in the blood of malaria patients in 1880 40 he named the parasite oscillaria malariae 40 in 1885 zoologists ettore marchiafva and angelo celli reexamined the parasite and termed it a member of a new genus plasmodium named for the resemblance to the multinucleate cells of slime molds of the same name 41 notes 1 the fact that several species may be involved in causing different forms of malaria was first recognized by camillo golgi in 1886 40 in 1897 william welch identified and named plasmodium falciparum soon thereafter giovanni batista grassi and raimondo filetti named the parasites causing two different types of human malaria plasmodium vivax and plasmodium malariae 40 this was followed by the recognition of the other two species of plasmodium which infect humans plasmodium ovale 1922 and plasmodium knowlesi identified in long tailed macaques in 1931 in humans in 1965 40 the contribution of insect hosts to the plasmodium life cycle was described in 1897 by ronald ross and in 1899 by giovanni batista grassi amico bignami and giuseppe bastianelli 40 in 1966 cyril garnham proposed separating plasmodium into nine subgenera based on host specificity and parasite morphology 18 this included four subgenera that had previously been proposed for bird infecting plasmodium species by a corradetti in 1963 42 19 this scheme was expanded upon by sam r telford in 1988 when he reclassified plasmodium parasites that infect reptiles adding five subgenera 20 18 in 1997 g valkiunas reclassified the bird infecting plasmodium species adding a fifth subgenus bennettinia 19 43 see also edit haematozoa list of plasmodium species plasmodium molecular tools notes edit the plural of plasmodium is not plasmodia instead multiple species of the genus are referred to as plasmodium species 41 references edit cdc malaria parasites about cdc malaria u s centers for disease control and prevention retrieved 28 december 2015 a b zilversmit m perkins s plasmodium tree of life web project retrieved 1 june 2016 obado samson o glover lucy deitsch kirk w 2016 the nuclear envelope and gene organization in parasitic protozoa specializations associated with disease molecular and biochemical parasitology 209 1 2 104 113 doi 10 1016 j molbiopara 2016 07 008 pmid 27475118 a b jimenez ruiz elena morlon guyot juliette daher wassim meissner markus 2016 vacuolar protein sorting mechanisms in apicomplexan parasites molecular and biochemical parasitology 209 1 2 18 25 doi 10 1016 j molbiopara 2016 01 007 pmc 5154328 pmid 26844642 counihan natalie a kalanon ming coppel ross l de koning ward tania f 2013 plasmodium rhoptry proteins why order is important trends in parasitology 29 5 228 36 doi 10 1016 j pt 2013 03 003 pmid 23570755 a b kemp louise e yamamoto masahiro soldati favre dominique 2013 subversion of host cellular functions by the apicomplexan parasites fems microbiology reviews 37 4 607 31 doi 10 1111 1574 6976 12013 pmid 23186105 a b sheiner lilach vaidya akhil b mcfadden geoffrey i 2013 the metabolic roles of the endosymbiotic organelles of toxoplasma and plasmodium spp current opinion in microbiology 16 4 452 8 doi 10 1016 j mib 2013 07 003 pmc 3767399 pmid 23927894 mcfadden geoffrey ian yeh ellen 2017 the apicoplast now you see it now you don t international journal for parasitology 47 2 3 137 144 doi 10 1016 j ijpara 2016 08 005 pmc 5406208 pmid 27773518 dooren giel striepen boris june 26 2013 the algal past and parasite present of the apicoplast annual review of microbiology 67 271 289 doi 10 1146 annurev micro 092412 155741 pmid 23808340 a b vernick k d oduol f lazarro b p glazebrook j xu j riehle m li j 2005 molecular genetics of mosquito resistance to malaria parasites in sullivan d krishna s eds malaria drugs disease and post genomic biology springer p 384 isbn 978 3 540 29088 9 a b c cdc malaria parasites biology cdc malaria u s centers for disease control and prevention retrieved 28 december 2015 markus m b 2011 malaria origin of the term hypnozoite journal of the history of biology 44 4 781 786 doi 10 1007 s10739 010 9239 3 pmid 20665090 s2cid 1727294 vaughan ashley m kappe stefan h i 2017 malaria parasite liver infection and exoerythrocytic biology cold spring harbor perspectives in medicine 7 6 a025486 doi 10 1101 cshperspect a025486 pmc 5453383 pmid 28242785 markus m b 2022 theoretical origin of genetically homologous plasmodium vivax malarial recurrences southern african journal of infectious diseases 37 1 369 doi 10 4102 sajid v37i1 369 pmc 8991251 pmid 35399558 morrison david a 2009 evolution of the apicomplexa where are we now trends in parasitology 25 8 375 82 doi 10 1016 j pt 2009 05 010 pmid 19635681 votypka j haemospororida danielewski 1885 tree of life retrieved 1 may 2018 a b c d e f perkins s l 2014 malaria s many mates past present and future of the systematics of the order haemosporida journal of parasitology 100 1 11 25 bibcode 2014jpara 100 11p doi 10 1645 13 362 1 pmid 24059436 s2cid 21291855 a b c martinsen e s perkins s l 2013 the diversity of plasmodium and other haemosporidians the intersection of taxonomy phylogenetics and genomics in carlton j m perkins s l deitsch k w eds malaria parasites comparative genomics evolution and molecular biology caister academic press pp 1 15 isbn 978 1 908230 07 2 a b c valkiunas gediminas 2004 brief historical summary avian malaria parasites and other haemosporidia crc press pp 9 15 isbn 978 0 415 30097 1 a b telford s 1988 a contribution to the systematics of the reptilian malaria parasites family plasmodiidae apicomplexa haemosporina bulletin of the florida state museum biological sciences 34 2 65 96 archived from the original on 2018 09 26 retrieved 2014 03 25 rich s ayala f 2003 progress in malaria research the case for phylogenetics advances in parasitology vol 54 pp 255 80 doi 10 1016 s0065 308x 03 54005 2 isbn 978 0 12 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2005 malaria primer for clinicians in the united states pdf south med j 98 12 1197 204 quiz 1205 1230 doi 10 1097 01 smj 0000189904 50838 eb pmid 16440920 s2cid 30660702 archived from the original pdf on 2009 03 26 shortt h e 1951 life cycle of the mammalian malaria parasite br med bull 8 1 7 9 doi 10 1093 oxfordjournals bmb a074057 pmid 14944807 history edit slater l b 2005 malarial birds modeling infectious human disease in animals bull hist med 79 2 261 94 doi 10 1353 bhm 2005 0092 pmid 15965289 s2cid 23594155 external links edit wikispecies has information related to plasmodium wikimedia commons has media related to plasmodium malaria atlas project plasmodium lifecycle animation v t e malaria biology malaria cerebral quartan fever blackwater fever pregnancy associated plasmodium biology life cycle vivax falciparum ovale malariae knowlesi anopheles mosquito life cycle schizont merozoite hypnozoite gametocyte control and prevention public health ddt mosquito net malaria prophylaxis mosquito control sterile insect technique genetic resistance duffy antigen sickle cell anaemia thalassemia g6pdh deficiency malaria vaccine rts s diagnosis and treatment diagnosis of malaria malaria culture blood film malaria antigen detection tests antimalarials artemisinin mefloquine proguanil society and malaria diseases of poverty millennium development goals history of malaria roman fever national malaria eradication program world malaria day epidemiology malaria in the caribbean malaria in mandatory palestine malaria atlas project organisations malaria consortium against malaria foundation bill melinda gates foundation imagine no malaria malaria no more africa fighting malaria african malaria network trust south african malaria initiative african leaders malaria alliance amazon malaria initiative the global fund to fight aids tuberculosis and malaria medicines for malaria venture european and developing countries clinical trials partnership category taxon identifiers plasmodium wikidata q130948 wikispecies plasmo...
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