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imited in not enabling a hypothetical comparator or comparators in outsourced business equality rules do not yet apply to child care rights which only give women substantial time off and consequently hinder equality in men and women caring for children after birth and pursuing their careers a majority of eu countries have legislation such the codetermination act 1976 or the statute for the école normale supérieure in paris which protect employees right to vote for a corporation s management this is reflected in the employee involvement directive 2001 for european companies third the eu is formally not enabled to legislate on collective bargaining although the eu with all member states is bound by the jurisprudence of the european court of human rights on freedom of association 312 in wilson and palmer v united kingdom 313 the court held that any detriment for membership of a trade union was incompatible with article 11 and in demir and baykara v turkey 314 the court held the right to bargain collectively with the employer has in principle become one of the essential elements of article 11 315 this approach which includes affirmation of the fundamental right to strike in all democratic member states 316 has been seen as lying in tension with some of the court of justice s previous case law notably itwf v viking line abp 317 and laval un partneri ltd v svenska byggnadsarbetareforbundet 318 these controversial decisions quickly disapproved by legislative measures 319 suggested the fundamental right of workers to take collective action was subordinate to business freedom to establish and provide services more positively the information and consultation directive 2002 requires that workplaces with over 20 or 50 staff have the right to set up elected work councils with a range of binding rights the european works council directive 2009 enables work councils transnationally and the employee involvement directive 2001 requires representation of workers on company boards in some european companies if a company transforms from a member state corporation to incorporate under the european company regulation 2001 employees are entitled to no less favourable representation than under the member state s existing board participation laws this is practically important as a majority of eu member states require employee representation on company boards fourth minimum job security rights are provided by three directives the collective redundancies directive 1998 specifies that minimum periods of notice and consultation occur if more than a set number of jobs in a workplace are at risk the transfers of undertakings directive 2001 require that staff retain all contractual rights unless there is an independent economic technical or organisational reason if their workplace is sold from one company to another last the insolvency protection directive 2008 requires that employees wage claims are protected in case their employer falls insolvent this last directive gave rise to francovich v italy where the court of justice affirmed that member states which fail to implement the minimum standards in eu directives are liable to pay compensation to employees who should have rights under them 320 companies and investment edit v t e company law sources first company law directive 2009 101 ec second company law directive 2012 30 eu third company law directive 2011 35 eu fourth company law directive 78 660 eec draft fifth company law directive sixth company law directive 82 891 eec seventh company law directive 83 349 eec eighth company law directive 2006 43 ec draft ninth company law directive tenth company law directive 2005 56 ec eleventh company law directive 89 666 eec twelfth company law directive 2009 102 ec takeover directive 2004 25 ec draft fourteenth company law directive market abuse directive 2003 6 ec transparency of listed companies directive 2004 109 ec shareholder rights directive 2007 36 ec merger tax directive 2009 133 ec see eu law and european corporate law main articles european company law uk company law german corporate law and united states corporate law like labour regulation european company law is not a complete system and there is no such thing as a self standing european corporation instead a series of directives require minimum standards usually protecting investors to be implemented in national corporate laws the largest in europe remain member state incorporations such as the uk plc the german ag or the french sa there is however a european company or societas europaea abbreviated to se created by the statute for a european company regulation 2001 321 this sets out basic provisions on the method of registration e g by merger or reincorporation of an existing company but then states that wherever the se has its registered office the law of that member state supplements the rules of the statute 322 the employee involvement directive 2001 also adds that when an se is incorporated employees have the default right to retain all existing representation on the board of directors that they have unless the negotiate by collective agreement a different or better plan than is provided for in existing member state law 323 other than this most important standards in a typical company law are left to member state law so long as they comply with further minimum requirements in the company law directives duties owed by the board of directors to the company and its stakeholders 324 or the right to bring derivative claims to vindicate constitutional rights are not generally regulated by eu law nor are rights of pre emption to buy shares nor rights of any party regarding claims by tort contract or piercing the corporate veil to hold directors and shareholders accountable 325 however directives do require minimum rights on company formation capital maintenance accounting and audit market regulation board neutrality in a takeover bid 326 rules on mergers and management of cross border insolvency 327 the omission of minimum standards is important since the court of justice held in centros that freedom of establishment requires companies operate in any member state they choose 328 this has been argued to risk a race to the bottom in standards although the court of justice soon affirmed in inspire art that companies must still comply with proportionate requirements that are in the public interest 329 v t e investment law sources institutions for occupational retirement directive 2003 undertakings for collective investment directive 2009 markets in financial instruments directive 2004 alternative investment fund managers directive 2011 solvency ii directive 2009 see eu law the shareholder rights directive 2007 requires proxy vote instructions are followed there eu has not yet acted as have the swiss to prevent asset managers or banks like deutsche bank casting votes on company shares bought with other people s money and to empower the ultimate investors 330 among the most important governance standards are rights vote for who is on the board of directors for investors of labour and capital a draft fifth company law directive proposed in 1972 which would have required eu wide rights for employees to vote for boards stalled mainly because it attempted to require two tier board structures 331 although most eu member states have codetermination today with unified boards the shareholder rights directive 2007 requires shareholders be able to make proposals ask questions at meetings vote by proxy and vote through intermediaries this has become increasingly important as most company shares are held by institutional investors primarily asset managers or banks depending on the member state who are holding other people s money 330 a large proportion of this money comes from employees and other people saving for retirement but who do not have an effective voice unlike switzerland after a 2013 people s initiative or the u s dodd frank act 2010 in relation to brokers 332 the eu has not yet prevented intermediaries casting votes without express instructions of beneficiaries this concentrates power into a small number of financial institutions and creates the potential for conflicts of interest where financial institutions sell retirement banking or products to companies in which they cast votes with other people s money a series of rights for ultimate investors exist in the institutions for occupational retirement provision directive 2003 this requires duties of disclosure in how a retirement fund is run funding and insurance to guard against insolvency 333 but not yet that voting rights are only cast on the instructions of investors by contrast the undertakings for collective investment in transferable securities directive 2009 does suggest that investors in a mutual fund or collective investment scheme should control the voting rights 334 the ucits directive 2009 is primarily concerned with creating a passport if a firm complies with rules on authorisation and governance of the management and investment companies in an overall fund structure it can sell its shares in a collective investment scheme across the eu this forms a broader package of directives on securities and financial market regulation much of which has been shaped by experience in the 2008 financial crisis 335 additional rules on remuneration practices separating depositary bodies in firms from management and investment companies and more penalties for violations were inserted in 2014 336 these measures are meant to decrease the risk to investors that an investment goes insolvent the markets in financial instruments directive 2004 applies to other businesses selling financial instruments it requires similar authorisation procedures to have a passport to sell in any eu country and transparency of financial contracts through duties to disclose material information about products being sold including disclosure of potential conflicts of interest with clients 337 the alternative investment fund managers directive 2011 applies to firms with massive quantities of capital over 100 million essentially hedge funds and private equity firms 338 similarly it requires authorisation to sell products eu wide and then basic transparency requirements on products being sold requirements in remuneration policies for fund managers that are perceived to reduce risk or make pay performance related they do not however require limits to pay there are general prohibitions on conflicts of interest and specialised prohibitions on asset stripping 339 the solvency ii directive 2009 is directed particularly at insurance firms requiring minimum capital and best practices in valuation of assets again to avoid insolvency 340 the capital requirements directives contain analogous rules with a similar goals for banks to administer the new rules the european system of financial supervision was established in 2011 and consists of three main branches the european securities and markets authority in paris the european banking authority in london and the european insurance and occupational pensions authority in frankfurt competition law edit main article european union competition law in microsoft corp v commission microsoft was fined 497 million for tying sales of its operating system to its media player to bankrupt competitor media players 341 maximum fines can reach 10 of worldwide turnover competition law aims to prevent competition from being distorted to the detriment of the public interest individual undertakings and consumers especially by limiting big business power 342 it covers all types of enterprise or undertaking regardless of legal form or every entity engaged in an economic activity 343 but not non profit organisations based on the principle of solidarity 344 or bodies carrying out a regulatory function employees and trade unions are not undertakings and are outside the scope of competition law 345 and so are solo self employed workers 346 because on long standing consensus in international law labour is not a commodity and workers have structurally unequal bargaining power compared to business and employers 347 a legal professional body setting regulatory standards was held to be outside competition law 348 and so were the rules of the international olympic committee and the international swimming federation in prohibiting drugs because although drugs might increase competition the integrity and objectivity of competitive sport was more important 349 eu competition law only regulates activities where trade between member states is affected to an appreciable degree 350 but member states may have higher standards that comply with social objectives 351 the four most important sets of rules relate to monopolies and enterprises with a dominant position mergers and takeovers cartels or collusive practices and state aid v t e monopoly dominance and abuse tfeu art 102 united brands bv v commission 1978 case 27 76 akzo chemie bv v commission 1991 c 62 86 astrazeneca plc v commission 2012 c 457 10 p google llc v commission 2022 t 604 18 commercial solvents corporation v commission 1974 cases 6 7 73 british airways plc v commission 2007 c 95 04 microsoft corp v commission 2004 case t 201 04 france telecom sa v commission 2009 c 202 07 intel corp v commission 2017 c 413 14 see european competition law first article 102 of the treaty on the functioning of the european union prohibits abuse by one or more undertakings of a dominant position a dominant position is presumed to exist with over a 50 market share 352 and may exist with a 39 7 market share 353 there may also be dominance through control of data or by a group of undertakings acting collectively 354 and a corporate group will be treated as a single economic unit for the purpose of calculating market share 355 the prohibited categories of abuse are unlimited 356 but article 102 explicitly spells out the bans on a unfair purchase or selling prices b limiting production c applying dissimilar conditions to equivalent transactions and d imposing unconnected supplementary obligations to contracts in a leading case on a unfair prices united brands co v commission held that although a banana company had a dominant position in its product and geographic markets because bananas were not easily substituted with other fruit and its relevant market share was 40 to 45 prices 7 higher than rivals were not enough to be an abuse 357 by contrast prices 25 higher than a company s estimated costs were found to be unfair 358 unfair pricing also includes predatory pricing where a company cuts its own selling prices to bankrupt a competitor there is a presumption of abuse if a company prices below average variable costs namely those which vary depending on the quantities produced 359 there is no requirement to show losses might be recouped 360 a leading case on b limiting production is astrazeneca plc v commission where a drug company was fined 60 million for misleading public authorities...
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