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on and widely distributed feed on benthopelagic zooplankton yet they are strictly benthic fish since they stay in contact with the bottom their fins have long rays they use to stand on the bottom while they face the current and grab zooplankton as it passes by 62 the deepest living fish known the strictly benthic abyssobrotula galatheae eel like and blind feeds on benthic invertebrates 63 64 pacific hagfish resting on bottom hagfish coat themselves and any dead fish they find with noxious slime making them inedible to other species the tripodfish bathypterois grallator a species of spiderfish uses its fin extensions to stand on the bottom 65 the blotched fantail ray feeds on bottom dwelling fish bivalves crabs and shrimps 66 cross section of an ocean basin note significant vertical exaggeration at great depths food scarcity and extreme pressure works to limit the survivability of fish the deepest point of the ocean is about 11 000 metres 6 8 miles bathypelagic fishes are not normally found below 3 000 metres 1 9 miles the greatest depth recorded for a benthic fish is 8 370 m 5 20 mi 67 it may be that extreme pressures interfere with essential enzyme functions 40 benthic fishes are more diverse and are likely to be found on the continental slope where there is habitat diversity and often food supplies approximately 40 of the ocean floor consists of abyssal plains but these flat featureless regions are covered with sediment and largely devoid of benthic life benthos deep sea benthic fishes are more likely to associate with canyons or rock outcroppings among the plains where invertebrate communities are established undersea mountains seamounts can intercept deep sea currents and cause productive upwellings that support benthic fish undersea mountain ranges may separate underwater regions into different ecosystems 17 pelagic fisheries edit forage fish edit pelagic predator tuna billfish shark forage herring sardine anchovy menhaden demersal benthopelagic cod benthic flatfish major marine wild fisheries see also forage fish small pelagic fish are usually forage fish that are hunted by larger pelagic fish and other predators forage fish filter feed on plankton and are usually less than 10 centimetres 3 9 inches long they often stay together in schools and may migrate large distances between spawning grounds and feeding grounds they are found particularly in upwelling regions around the northeast atlantic off the coast of japan and off the west coasts of africa and the americas forage fish are generally short lived and their stocks fluctuate markedly over the years 68 herring are found in the north sea and the north atlantic at depths to 200 metres 660 feet important herring fisheries have existed in these areas for centuries herring of different sizes and growth rates belong to different populations each of which have their own migration routes when spawning a female produces from 20 000 to 50 000 eggs after spawning the herrings are depleted of fat and migrate back to feeding grounds rich in plankton 69 around iceland three separate populations of herring were fished traditionally these stocks collapsed in the late 1960s although two have since recovered after the collapse iceland turned to capelin which now account for about half of iceland s total catch 70 blue whiting are found in the open ocean and above the continental slope at depths between 100 and 1000 meters they follow vertical migrations of the zooplankton they feed on to the bottom during daytime and to the surface at night time 69 71 traditional fisheries for anchovies and sardines also have operated in the pacific the mediterranean and the southeast atlantic 72 the world annual catch of forage fish in recent years has been approximately 22 million tonnes or one quarter of the world s total catch these schooling pacific sardines are forage fish herrings ram feeding on copepods capelin anchovies peruvian anchoveta predator fish edit see also predator fish medium size pelagic fishes include trevally barracuda flying fish bonito mahi mahi and coastal mackerel 1 many of these fish hunt forage fish but are in turn hunted by yet larger pelagic fish nearly all fish are predator fish to some measure and apart from the top predators the distinction between predator fish and prey or forage fish is somewhat artificial 73 around europe there are three populations of coastal mackerel one population migrates to the north sea another stays in the waters of the irish sea and the third population migrates southward along the west coast of scotland and ireland the cruise speed of the mackerel is an impressive 10 kilometres per hour 69 74 many large pelagic fish are oceanic nomadic species that undertake long offshore migrations they feed on small pelagic forage fish as well as medium sized pelagic fish at times they follow their schooling prey and many species form schools themselves examples of larger pelagic fish are tuna billfish king mackerel sharks and large rays tuna in particular are of major importance to commercial fisheries although tuna migrate across oceans trying to find them there is not the usual approach tuna tend to congregate in areas where food is abundant along the boundaries of currents around islands near seamounts and in some areas of upwelling along continental slopes tuna are captured by several methods purse seine vessels enclose an entire surface school with special nets pole and line vessels that use poles baited with other smaller pelagic fish as baitfish and rafts called fish aggregating devices are set up because tuna as well as some other pelagic fish tend to congregate under floating objects 1 other large pelagic fish are premier game fish particularly marlin and swordfish yellowfin tuna are being fished as a replacement for the now largely depleted southern bluefin tuna atlantic pomfret swordfish king mackerels cruise on long migrations at 10 kilometres per hour 69 74 major ocean surface currents areas of upwelling in red pacific decadal anomalies april 2008 productivity edit upwelling occurs both along coastlines and in midocean when a collision of deep ocean currents brings cold water that is rich in nutrients to the surface these upwellings support blooms of phytoplankton which in turn produce zooplankton and support many of the world s main fisheries if the upwelling fails then fisheries in the area fail 14 in the 1960s the peruvian anchoveta fishery was the world s largest fishery the anchoveta population was greatly reduced during the 1972 el niño event when warm water drifted over the cold humboldt current as part of a 50 year cycle lowering the depth of the thermocline the upwelling stopped and phytoplankton production plummeted as did the anchoveta population and millions of seabirds dependent on the anchoveta died 75 since the mid 1980s the upwelling has resumed and the peruvian anchoveta catch levels have returned to the 1960s levels off japan the collision of the oyashio current with the kuroshio current produces nutrient rich upwellings cyclic changes in these currents resulted in a decline in the sardine sardinops melanosticta populations fisheries catches fell from 5 million tonnes in 1988 to 280 thousand tonnes in 1998 as a further consequence pacific bluefin tuna stopped moving into the region to feed 76 77 ocean currents can shape how fish are distributed both concentrating and dispersing them adjacent ocean currents can define distinct if shifting boundaries these boundaries can even be visible but usually their presence is marked by rapid changes in salinity temperature and turbidity 14 for example in the asian northern pacific albacore are confined between two current systems the northern boundary is determined by the cold north pacific current and the southern boundary is determined by the north equatorial current to complicate things their distribution is further modified within the area defined by the two current systems by another current the kuroshio current whose flows fluctuate seasonally 78 epipelagic fish often spawn in an area where the eggs and larvae drift downstream into suitable feeding areas and eventually drift into adult feeding areas 14 islands and banks can interact with currents and upwellings in a manner that results in areas of high ocean productivity large eddies can form downcurrent or downwind from islands concentrating plankton 79 banks and reefs can intercept deep currents that upwell 14 scombrids highly migratory species edit see also highly migratory species shortfin mako shark make long seasonal migrations they appear to follow temperature gradients and have been recorded travelling more than 4 500 km in one year 80 epipelagic fish generally move long distances between feeding and spawning areas or as a response to changes in the ocean large ocean predators such as salmon and tuna can migrate thousands of kilometres crossing oceans 81 in a 2001 study the movements of atlantic bluefin tuna from an area off north carolina were studied with the help of special popup tags when attached to a tuna these tags monitored the movements of the tuna for about a year then detached and floated to the surface where they transmitted their information to a satellite the study found that the tuna had four different migration patterns one group confined itself to the western atlantic for a year another group also stayed mainly in the western atlantic but migrated to the gulf of mexico for spawning a third group moved across the atlantic ocean and back again the fourth group crossed to the eastern atlantic and then moved into the mediterranean sea for spawning the study indicates that while there is some differentiation by spawning areas there is essentially only one population of atlantic bluefin tuna intermixing groups that between them use all of the north atlantic ocean the gulf of mexico and the mediterranean sea 82 the term highly migratory species hms is a legal term that has its origins in article 64 of the united nations convention on the law of the sea unclos 83 the highly migratory species include tuna and tuna like species albacore atlantic bluefin bigeye tuna skipjack yellowfin blackfin little tunny pacific bluefin southern bluefin and bullet pomfret marlin sailfish swordfish saury and oceangoing sharks as well as mammals such as dolphins and other cetaceans essentially highly migratory species coincide with the larger of the large pelagic fish discussed in the previous section if cetaceans are added and some commercially unimportant fish such as the sunfish are excluded these are high trophic level species that undertake migrations of significant but variable distances across oceans for feeding often on forage fish or reproduction and also have wide geographic distributions thus these species are found both inside the 200 nautical mile 370 km exclusive economic zones and in the high seas outside these zones they are pelagic species which means they mostly live in the open ocean and do not live near the sea floor although they may spend part of their life cycle in nearshore waters 84 capture production edit according to the food and agriculture organization fao the world harvest in 2005 consisted of 93 2 million tonnes captured by commercial fishing in wild fisheries 85 of this total about 45 were pelagic fish the following table shows the world capture production in tonnes 86 capture production by groups of species in tonnes type group 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 small pelagic fish herrings sardines anchovies 22 671 427 24 919 239 20 640 734 22 289 332 18 840 389 23 047 541 22 404 769 large pelagic fish tunas bonitos billfishes 5 943 593 5 816 647 5 782 841 6 138 999 6 197 087 6 160 868 6 243 122 other pelagic fish 10 712 994 10 654 041 12 332 170 11 772 320 11 525 390 11 181 871 11 179 641 cartilaginous fish sharks rays chimaeras 858 007 870 455 845 854 845 820 880 785 819 012 771 105 threatened species edit in 2009 the international union for conservation of nature iucn produced the first red list for threatened oceanic sharks and rays they claim that approximately one third of open ocean sharks and rays are under threat of extinction 87 there are 64 species of oceanic sharks and rays on the list including hammerheads giant devil rays and porbeagle 88 oceanic sharks are captured incidentally by swordfish and tuna high seas fisheries in the past there were few markets for sharks which were regarded as worthless bycatch now sharks are being increasingly targeted to supply emerging asian markets particularly for shark fins which are used in shark fin soup 88 the northwest atlantic ocean shark populations are estimated to have declined by 50 since the early 1970s oceanic sharks are vulnerable because they do not produce many young and the young can take decades to mature 88 the scalloped hammerhead is classified as endangered the oceanic whitetip shark has declined by 99 in the gulf of mexico 88 the devil fish a large ray is threatened the porbeagle shark is threatened in parts of the world the scalloped hammerhead shark has declined by 99 since the late 1970s its status on the red list is that it is globally endangered meaning it is near extinction 88 see also edit deep sea deep sea fish freshwater fish nekton ocean tracking network oily fish pacific ocean shelf tracking project tagging of pacific predators references edit notes 1 2 3 4 5 lal brij v fortune kate 2000 the pacific islands an encyclopedia university of hawaii press p 8 isbn 978 0 8248 2265 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 moyle and cech p 585 mclintock a h ed 1966 pelagic te ara the encyclopaedia of new zealand accessed 29 sep 2022 walrond carl oceanic fish archived 18 october 2008 at the wayback machine encyclopedia of new zealand accessed 29 sep 2022 lake tanganyika pcwww liv ac uk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 moyle and cech p 571 1 2 herring peter 2002 the biology of the deep ocean oxford university press pp 192 95 isbn 978 0 19 854956 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 moyle and cech p 572 blackburn 1965 oceanography and the ecology of tunas oceanography and marine biology an annual review 3 299 322 hunter jr mitchell ct 1966 association of fishes with flotsam in the offshore waters of central america fishery bulletin 66 13 29 kingsford mj 1993 biotic and abiotic structure in the pelagic environment importance to small fishes bulletin of marine science 53 2 393 415 dooley jk 1972 fishes associated with the pelagic sargassum complex with a discussion of the sargassum community contributions in marine science 16 1 32 moyle and cech p 576 1 2 3 4 5 moyle and cech pp 574 575 josse e 2000 typologie et comportement des agrégations thonières autour de dispositifs de concentration de poissons à partir de prospections acoustiques en polynésie française aquatic living resources 13 4 183 192 doi 10 1016 s0990 7440 00 00051 6 frazier j g fierstine h l beavers s c achaval f suganuma h pitman r l yamaguchi y prigioni c m 1994 impalement of marine turtles reptitia chelonia 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