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s africa and asia where english is not the first language of the majority of the population the falkland islands a british territory off the southeast coast of south america with english as its native language have their own dialect while british english is the standard in contrast american english tends to dominate instruction in latin america and east asia 20 21 due to globalisation and the resulting spread of the language in recent decades english is becoming increasingly decentralised with daily use and statewide study of the language in schools growing in most regions of the world however in the global context the number of native speakers of english is much smaller than the number of non native speakers of english of reasonable competence in 2018 it was estimated that for every native speaker of english there are six non native speakers of reasonable competence 22 raising the questions of english as a lingua franca as the most widely spoken form of the language philippine english which is predominantly spoken as a second language has been primarily influenced by american english the rise of the call center industry in the philippines has encouraged some filipinos to polish or neutralize their accents to make them more closely resemble the accents of their client countries citation needed countries such as australia new zealand and canada have their own well established varieties of english which are the standard within those countries but are far more rarely taught overseas to second language learners 23 standard english in australia and new zealand is related to british english in its common pronunciation and vocabulary a similar relationship exists between canadian english and american english english was historically pluricentric when it was used across the independent kingdoms of england and scotland prior to the acts of union in 1707 english english and scottish english are now subsections of british english citation needed french edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed september 2018 learn how and when to remove this message main article varieties of french in the modern era there are several major loci of the french language including standard french also known as parisian french canadian french including quebec french and acadian french belgian french american french for instance louisiana french haitian french and african french until the early 20th century the french language was highly variable in pronunciation and vocabulary within france with varying dialects and degrees of intelligibility known as the langues d oïl however government policy made it so that the dialect of paris would be the method of instruction in schools and other dialects like norman which has influence from scandinavian languages were neglected controversy still remains in france over the fact that the government recognizes them as languages of france but provides no monetary support for them nor has the constitutional council of france ratified the charter for regional or minority languages citation needed north american french is the result of french colonization of the new world between the 17th and 18th centuries in many cases it contains vocabulary and dialectal quirks not found in standard parisian french owing to history most of the original settlers of quebec acadia and later what would become louisiana and northern new england came from northern and northwest france and would have spoken dialects like norman poitevin and angevin with far fewer speaking the dialect of paris this plus isolation from developments in france most notably the drive for standardization by l académie française make north american dialects of the language quite distinct acadian french spoken in new brunswick canada has many words no longer used in modern france much of it having roots in the 17th century and a distinct intonation québécois the largest of the dialects has a distinct pronunciation that is not found in europe in any measure and a greater difference in vowel pronunciation and syntax tends to vary greatly citation needed cajun french has some distinctions not found in canada in that there is more vocabulary derived from both local native american and african dialects and a pronunciation of the letter r that has disappeared in france entirely it is rolled and with heavier contact with the english language than any of the above the pronunciation has shifted to harder sounding consonants in the 20th century cajun french equally has been an oral language for generations and it is only recently that its syntax and features been adapted to french orthography citation needed in africa french is often spoken as a second language alongside the indigenous ones but in a small number of urban areas in particular in central africa and in the ports located on the gulf of guinea it has become a first language such as in the region of abidjan côte d ivoire 24 the democratic republic of congo 25 in the urban areas of douala yaoundé in cameroon in libreville gabon and antananarivo 26 in the urban areas of francophone africa another type of french has emerged français populaire africain popular african french or fpa it is used in the entirety of sub saharan africa but especially in cities such as abidjan côte d ivoire cotonou benin dakar senegal lomé togo and ouagadougou burkina faso minor standards can also be found in belgium and switzerland with particular influence of germanic languages on grammar and vocabulary sometimes through the influence of local dialects in belgium for example various germanic influences in spoken french are evident in wallonia for example to blink in english and blinken in german and dutch blinquer in walloon and local french cligner in standard french ring rocade or périphérique in standard french is a common word in the three national languages for beltway or ring road citation needed also in belgium and switzerland there are noted differences in the number system when compared to standard parisian or canadian french notably in the use of septante octante huitante and nonante for the numbers 70 80 and 90 in other standards of french these numbers are usually denoted soixante dix sixty ten quatre vingts fourscore and quatre vingt dix fourscore and ten french varieties spoken in oceania are also influenced by local languages new caledonian french is influenced by kanak languages in its vocabulary and grammatical structure african french is another variety citation needed german edit main article standard german standard german is often considered an asymmetric pluricentric language 27 the standard used in germany is often considered dominant mostly because of the sheer number of its speakers compared to the austrian standard german and swiss standard german varieties although there is a uniform stage pronunciation based on a manual by theodor siebs that is used in theatres and nowadays to a lesser extent in radio and television news all across german speaking countries this is not true for the standards applied at public occasions in austria south tyrol and switzerland which differ in pronunciation vocabulary and sometimes even grammar in switzerland the letter ß has been removed from the alphabet with ss as its replacement the varieties of standard german used in those regions are to some degree influenced by the respective dialects but by no means identical to them by specific cultural traditions e g in culinary vocabulary which differs markedly across the german speaking area of europe and by different terminology employed in law and administration a list of austrian terms for certain food items has even been incorporated into eu law even though it is clearly incomplete 28 scholarly scepticism in german dialectology about the pluricentric status of german has led some linguists to detect a one standard german axiom osga as active in the field hindustani edit the hindi languages are a large dialect continuum defined as a unit culturally medieval hindustani then known as hindavi 29 was based on a register of the delhi dialect and has two modern literary forms standard hindi and standard urdu additionally there are historical literary standards such as the closely related braj bhasha and the more distant awadhi as well as recently established standard languages based on what were once considered hindi dialects maithili and dogri other varieties such as rajasthani are often considered distinct languages but have no standard form caribbean hindi and fijian hindi also differ significantly from the sanskritized standard hindi spoken in india citation needed malay edit main articles malay language comparison of standard malay and indonesian and malay trade and creole languages the malay language has many local dialects and creolized versions but it has two main normative varieties which are malaysian malay and indonesian indonesian was codified by indonesia as its own lingua franca based on the dialect spoken in the riau islands whereas malaysian malay was codified based on the dialect of johor 30 thus both lects have the same dialectal basis and linguistic sources still tend to treat the two standards as different forms of a single language 31 in popular parlance however the two varieties are often thought of by whom as distinct tongues in their own rights due to the growing divergence between them and for political reasons nevertheless they retain a high degree of mutual intelligibility despite a number of differences in vocabulary including many false friends and grammar citation needed malayalam edit malayalam is a pluricentric language with historically more than one written form malayalam script is officially recognized but there are other standardized varieties such as arabi malayalam of mappila muslims karshoni of saint thomas christians and judeo malayalam of cochin jews citation needed persian edit the persian language has three standard varieties with official status in iran locally known as farsi afghanistan officially known as dari and tajikistan officially known as tajik the standard forms of the three are based on the tehrani kabuli and dushanbe varieties respectively citation needed the persian alphabet is used for both farsi iranian and dari afghan traditionally tajiki is also written with perso arabic script in order to increase literacy a latin alphabet based on the common turkic alphabet was introduced in 1917 later in the late 1930s the tajik soviet socialist republic promoted the use of cyrillic alphabet which remains the most widely used system today attempts to reintroduce the perso arabic script were made 32 the language spoken by bukharan jews is called bukhori or bukharian and is written in hebrew alphabet portuguese edit apart from the galician question portuguese varies mainly between brazilian portuguese and european portuguese also known as lusitanian portuguese standard portuguese or even reduplicated portuguese portuguese both varieties have undergone significant and divergent developments in phonology and the grammar of their pronominal systems the result is that communication between the two varieties of the language without previous exposure can be occasionally difficult although speakers of european portuguese tend to understand brazilian portuguese better than vice versa due to the heavy exposure to music soap operas etc from brazil word ordering can be dramatically different between european and brazilian portuguese without significantly hampering mutual intelligibility 33 a unified orthography for all the varieties including a limited number of words with dual spelling has been approved by the national legislatures of the portuguese speaking countries and is now official see spelling reforms of portuguese for additional details formal written standards remain grammatically close to each other despite some minor syntactic differences african portuguese and asian portuguese are based on the standard european dialect but have undergone their own phonetic and grammatical developments sometimes reminiscent of the spoken brazilian variant a number of creoles of portuguese have developed in african countries for example in guinea bissau and on the island of são tomé 33 serbo croatian edit see also language secessionism in serbo croatian serbo croatian is a pluricentric language 34 with four standards bosnian croatian montenegrin and serbian promoted in bosnia and herzegovina croatia montenegro and serbia 35 36 37 38 39 40 these standards do differ slightly but do not hinder mutual intelligibility 41 42 43 44 45 46 rather as all four standardised varieties are based on the prestige shtokavian dialect major differences in intelligibility are identified not on the basis of standardised varieties but rather dialects like kajkavian and chakavian 38 lexical differences between the ethnic variants are extremely limited even when compared with those between closely related slavic languages such as standard czech and slovak bulgarian and macedonian and grammatical differences are even less pronounced more importantly complete understanding between the ethnic variants of the standard language makes translation and second language teaching impossible 40 spanish edit main article spanish dialects and varieties spanish has both national and regional linguistic norms which vary in terms of vocabulary grammar and pronunciation but all varieties are mutually intelligible and the same orthographic rules are shared throughout 47 in spain standard spanish is based upon the speech of educated speakers from madrid 48 all varieties spoken in the iberian peninsula are grouped as peninsular spanish canarian spanish spoken in the canary islands along with spanish spoken in the americas including spanish spoken in the united states central american spanish mexican spanish andean spanish and caribbean spanish are particularly related to andalusian spanish the united states is now the world s second largest spanish speaking country after mexico in total number of speakers l1 and l2 speakers a report said there are 41 million l1 spanish speakers and another 11 6 million l2 speakers in the u s this puts the us ahead of colombia 48 million and spain 46 million and second only to mexico 121 million 49 50 the spanish of latin americans has a growing influence on the language across the globe through music culture and television produced using the language of the largely bilingual speech community of us latinos 51 52 53 in argentina and uruguay the spanish standard is based on the local dialects of buenos aires and montevideo this is known as rioplatense spanish from rio de la plata river plate and is distinguishable from other standard spanish dialects by voseo in colombia rolo a name for the dialect of bogotá is valued for its clear pronunciation 54 the judeo spanish also known as ladino not to be...
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