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age system negative vote transfer mixed ballot supermixed systems dual member mixed proportional rural urban proportional majority jackpot by ballot type single vote double simultaneous vote dual vote paradoxes and pathologies spoiler effects spoiler effect cloning paradox frustrated majorities paradox center squeeze pathological response perverse response apportionment paradox best is worst paradox no show paradox multiple districts paradox strategic voting lesser evil voting exaggeration truncation turkey raising wasted vote paradoxes of majority rule tyranny of the majority discursive dilemma conflicting majorities paradox social and collective choice impossibility theorems arrow s theorem majority impossibility moulin s impossibility theorem mckelvey schofield chaos theorem gibbard s theorem positive results median voter theorem condorcet s jury theorem may s theorem condorcet dominance theorems harsanyi s utilitarian theorem non classical mechanisms vcg mechanism quadratic voting supermajority unanimity politics portal economics portal mathematics portal v t e part of the politics series direct democracy referendum types optional referendum legislative referral popular initiative recall referendum popular referendum mandatory referendum referendums by country australia canada czechia eu france germany italy iran israel kenya lithuania netherlands new zealand poland philippines sweden slovakia switzerland turkey taiwan uk ukraine usa referendums by issue civil rights finance mining war independence eu referendums by method e referendum popular assemblies by location ancient greece ancient rome argentina england chiapas new england north and east syria serbia spain switzerland multiple occupy participatory budgeting history of direct democracy athenian democracy in usa related direct election citizens assembly citizen s jury list of direct democracy parties ballot title sortition politics portal v t e in governance sortition is the selection of public officials or jurors at random i e by lottery in order to obtain a representative sample 1 2 3 in ancient athenian democracy sortition was the traditional and primary method for appointing political officials and its use was regarded as a principal characteristic of democracy 4 5 sortition is often classified as a method for both direct democracy and deliberative democracy today sortition is commonly used to select prospective jurors in common law systems what has changed in recent years is the increased number of citizen groups with political advisory power 6 7 along with calls for making sortition more consequential than elections as it was in athens venice and florence 8 9 10 11 history edit ancient athens edit see also athenian democracy selection by lot athenian democracy developed in the 6th century bc out of what was then called isonomia equality of law and political rights sortition was then the principal way of achieving this fairness it was utilized to pick most 12 49 of the magistrates for their governing committees and for their juries typically of 501 men a kleroterion in the ancient agora museum athens most athenians believed sortition not elections to be democratic 12 84 and used complex procedures with purpose built allotment machines kleroteria to avoid the corrupt practices used by oligarchs to buy their way into office according to the author mogens herman hansen the citizen s court was superior to the assembly because the allotted members swore an oath which ordinary citizens in the assembly did not therefore the court could annul the decisions of the assembly most greek writers who mention democracy including aristotle 12 69 note 1 note 2 plato note 3 herodotus note 4 and pericles note 5 emphasize the role of selection by lot or state outright that being allotted is more democratic than elections which were seen as oligarchic socrates note 6 and isocrates note 7 however questioned whether randomly selected decision makers had enough expertise past scholarship maintained that sortition had roots in the use of chance to divine the will of the gods but this view is no longer common among scholars 13 26 27 in ancient greek mythology zeus poseidon and hades used sortition to determine who ruled over which domain zeus got the sky poseidon the sea and hades the underworld 14 in athenian democracy to be eligible to be chosen by lot citizens self selected into the available pool then onto lotteries in the kleroteria machines the magistracies assigned by lot generally had terms of service of one year a citizen could not hold any particular magistracy more than once in his lifetime but could hold other magistracies all male citizens over 30 years of age who were not disenfranchised by atimia were eligible those selected through lot underwent examination called dokimasia to ensure citizenship and consider life character and at times property capacity for a post was assumed rarely were selected citizens discarded 13 page needed magistrates once in place were subjected to constant monitoring by the assembly each magistrate appointed by lot was required upon completion of his term to render an account of his time in office called a euthyna any citizen could request the suspension of a magistrate with due reason a kleroterion was used to allot officers and select eligible and willing citizens to serve jury duty this bolstered the initial athenian system of democracy by getting new and different jury members from each tribe to avoid corruption citation needed james wycliffe headlam wrote that the athenian council which consisted of 500 randomly selected male citizens would commit occasional mistakes such as levying taxes that were too high headlam wrote that power did not tend to go to those who sought it and deemed systematic oppression and organized fraud impossible due to widely and randomly distributed power combined with checks and balances 15 he stated that the athenians largely trusted the system of random selection regarding it as the most natural and the simplest way of appointment 16 sortition was used for most positions except for military positions such as strategos that were elected 17 lombardy and venice 12th to 18th century edit the brevia was used in the city states of lombardy during the 12th and 13th centuries and in venice until the late 18th century 18 men who were chosen randomly swore an oath that they were not acting under bribes and then they elected members of the council voter and candidate eligibility probably included property owners councilors guild members and perhaps at times artisans the doge of venice was determined through a complex process of nomination voting and sortition lot was used in the venetian system only in order to select members of the committees that served to nominate candidates for the great council a combination of election and lot was used in this multi stage process lot was not used alone to select magistrates unlike in florence and athens the use of lot to select nominators made it more difficult for political sects to exert power and discouraged campaigning 13 64 by reducing intrigue and power moves within the great council lot maintained cohesiveness among the venetian nobility contributing to the stability of this republic top magistracies generally still remained in the control of elite families 19 florence 14th and 15th century edit scrutiny was used in florence for over a century starting in 1328 18 nominations and voting together created a pool of candidates from different sectors of the city the names of these men were deposited into a sack and a lottery draw determined who would get to be a magistrate the scrutiny was gradually opened up to minor guilds reaching the greatest level of renaissance citizen participation in 1378 1382 in florence lot was used to select magistrates and members of the signoria during republican periods florence utilized a combination of lot and scrutiny by the people set forth by the ordinances of 1328 13 55 in 1494 florence founded a great council in the model of venice the nominatori were thereafter chosen by lot from among the members of the great council indicating an increase in aristocratic power 20 the enlightenment edit during the age of enlightenment many of the political ideals originally championed by the democratic city states of ancient greece were revisited the use of sortition as a means of selecting the members of government while receiving praise from notable enlightenment thinkers received almost no discussion during the formation of the american and french republics montesquieu s book the spirit of laws provides one of the most cited discussions of the concept in enlightenment political writing in which he argues sortition is natural to democracy just as elections are to aristocracy 21 he echoes the philosophy of much earlier thinkers such as aristotle who found elections as aristocratic 13 40 montesquieu caveats his support by saying that there should also be some mechanisms to ensure the pool of selection is competent and not corrupt 22 rousseau also found that a mixed model of sortition and election provided a healthier path for democracy than one or the other 23 harrington also found the venetian model of sortition compelling recommending it for his ideal republic of oceana 24 edmund burke in contrast worried that those randomly selected to serve would be less effective and productive than self selected politicians 25 note 8 bernard manin a french political theorist was astonished to find so little consideration of sortition in the early years of representative government he wonders if perhaps the choosing of rulers by lot may have been viewed as impractical on such a large scale as the modern state or if elections were thought to give greater political consent than sortition 13 page needed however david van reybrouck disagrees with manin s theories on the lack of consideration of sortition he suggests that the relatively limited knowledge about athenian democracy played a major role with the first thorough examination coming only in 1891 with election by lot at athens he also argues that wealthy enlightenment figures preferred to retain more power by holding elections with most not even offering excuses on the basis of practicality but plainly saying they preferred to retain significant elite power 26 citing commentators of 18th century france and the united states suggesting that they simply dislodged a hereditary aristocracy to replace it with an elected aristocracy 27 switzerland edit because financial gain could be achieved through the position of mayor some parts of switzerland used random selection during the years between 1640 and 1837 to prevent corruption 28 methods edit uscar court select juries by sortition before the random selection can be done the pool of candidates must be defined systems vary as to whether they allot from eligible volunteers from those screened by education experience or a passing grade on a test or screened by election by those selected by a previous round of random selection or from the membership or population at large a multi stage process in which random selection is alternated with other screening methods can be used as in the venetian system david chaum proposed selecting a random sample of eligible voters to study and vote on a public policy 29 30 while deliberative opinion polling invites a random sample to deliberate together before voting on a policy 29 analysis edit outcomes edit see also citizens assembly common interest andranik tangian critiques electoral politics as over representing politically active people and groups in a society 31 17 cognitive diversity or wisdom of the crowd utilizes a variety of perspectives and cognitive skills to find better solutions 32 according to numerous scholars such as page and landemore 33 this diversity is more important to creating successful ideas than the average ability level of a group page argues that random selection of persons of average intelligence perform better than a collection of the best individual problem solvers 34 this diversity trumps ability theorem 35 is central to the arguments for sortition 33 efficiency edit see also citizens assembly efficiency some argue that randomly allocating decision making is more efficient than representative democracy through elections 36 37 john burnheim critiques representative democracy as requiring citizens to vote for a large package of policies and preferences bundled together in one representative or party much of which a voter might not want he argues that this does not translate voter preferences as well as sortition where a group of people have the time and the ability to focus on a single issue 38 by allowing decision makers to focus on positive sum endeavors rather than zero sum elections it could help to lessen political polarization 37 39 and the influence of money and interest groups in politics 27 some studies show an overrepresentation of psychopathic and narcissistic traits in elected officials which can be solved through sortition by not selecting for people who seek power 40 41 participation edit see also citizens assembly participation burnheim also notes the importance of legitimacy for the effectiveness of the practice 42 legitimacy does depend on the success in achieving representativeness which if not met could limit the use cases of sortition to serving as consultative or political agenda setting bodies 43 oliver dowlen points to the egalitarian nature of all citizens having an equal chance of entering office irrespective of any bias in society that appear in representative bodies that can make them more representative 44 45 to bolster legitimacy other sortition bodies have been used and proposed to set the rules to improve accountability without the need for elections 46 the introduction of a variable percentage of randomly selected independent legislators in a parliament can increase the global efficiency of a legislature in terms of both number of laws passed and average social welfare obtained 47 this work is consistent with a 2010 paper on how the adoption of random strategies can improve the efficiency of hierarchical organizations 48 49 as participants grow in competence by contributing to deliberation they also become more engaged and interested in civic affairs 50 most societies have some type of citizenship education but sortition based committees allow ordinary people to develop their own democratic capacities through direct participation 51 survey experiments have produced mixed results finding that the perceived legitimacy of sortition depends on factors like individual characteristics and the policy issue in question 52 53 modern application edit sortition is most commonly used to form deliberative mini publics like citizens assemblies or the smaller citizen juries 54 the oecd has counted almost 600 examples of citizens assemblies with members selected by lottery for public d...
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