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scribed by his courtiers as the emperor other titles were sometimes used as well such as grand duke and prince of the turkish romans 162 the citizens of constantinople and the former byzantine empire which still identified as romans and not greeks until modern times saw the ottoman empire as still representing their empire the universal empire the imperial capital was still constantinople and its ruler mehmed ii was the basileus 171 as with the byzantine emperors before them the imperial status of the ottoman sultans was primarily expressed through the refusal to recognize the holy roman emperors as equal rulers in diplomacy the western emperors were titled as kıral kings of vienna or hungary 162 the problem of two emperors and the dispute between the holy roman empire and the ottoman empire would be finally resolved after the two empires signed a peace treaty following a string of ottoman defeats in the 1606 peace of zsitvatorok ottoman sultan ahmed i for the first time in his empire s history formally recognized the holy roman emperor rudolf ii with the title császár hungarian for caesar rather than kıral 172 173 for a last payment of 200 000 gulden the sublime porte s annual tribute demands were stopped 174 ahmed made sure to write like a father to a son symbolically emphasizing that the eastern empire retained some primacy over its western counterpart 162 the ottoman empire later shifted towards imperator or imperador which fell out of use by the ottoman sultans at this point and was not associated with him anymore 172 in the ottoman empire itself the idea that the sultan was a universal ruler lingered on despite his recognition of the holy roman emperor as an equal writing in 1798 the greek orthodox patriarch of jerusalem anthemus saw the ottoman empire as imposed by god himself as the supreme empire on earth and something which had arisen due to the dealings of the palaiologan emperors with the western christians 171 behold how our merciful and omniscient lord has managed to preserve the integrity of our holy orthodox faith and to save us all he brought forth out of nothing the powerful empire of the ottomans which he set up in the place of our empire of the romaioi which had begun in some ways to deviate from the path of the orthodox faith and he raised this empire of the ottomans above every other in order to prove beyond doubt that it came into being by the will of god for there is no authority except that deriving from god ottoman administrative documents continued to call the roman german emperors kings of vienna up to the early 18th century nevertheless it was an important step to equality in foreign politics the treaty was reaffirmed multiple times for example by the treaty of karlowitz in 1699 175 european nations adopted a secular foreign policy and in 1771 austria formed an alliance with the ottomans against kingdom of prussia 176 after the unsuccessful austrian invasion the ottomans accepted western diplomatic practices with the treaty of sistova of 1791 177 the austrian empire continued to respect the compromise with the ottomans after the dissolution of the holy roman empire 178 holy roman russian dispute edit coin of russian emperor tsar peter i with the emperor being depicted with a laurel wreath as ancient roman emperors were on their coins by the time of the first embassy from the holy roman empire to russia in 1488 the two emperor problem had already translated to moscow 179 in 1472 ivan iii the grand prince of moscow married the niece of the last byzantine emperor zoe palaiologina and informally declared himself tsar emperor of all the russian principalities in 1480 he stopped paying tribute to the golden horde and adopted the imperial double headed eagle as one of his symbols a distinct russian theory of translatio imperii was developed by abbot philotheus of pskov in this doctrine the first rome fell to heresy catholicism and the second rome constantinople to the infidel ottomans but the third rome moscow would endure until the end of the world 180 in 1488 ivan iii demanded recognition of his title as the equivalent of emperor but his demand was refused by the holy roman emperor frederick iii and other western european rulers ivan iv went even further in his imperial claims claiming descent from the first roman emperor augustus at his coronation as the tsar of all russia in 1547 he used the slavic translation of the byzantine coronation service and what he claimed was byzantine regalia 180 around this time ivan iv stopped using the term brother towards other kings and only saw the holy roman emperor and the ottoman sultan as his equals 181 england denmark and initially sweden were the first to recognize ivan iv as tsar 182 the treaty of cardis of 1661 obliged sweden to use the title tsar after sweden stopped recognising the title again 183 king louis xiii of france recognized michael of russia as the head of the eastern hemisphere and empereur in 1629 184 the papacy itself was willing to recognize the russian tsar as imperator if russia agreed to communion with the catholic church 185 and also avoided calling him grand prince instead opting for domino russiae lord of russia pope clement viii recognised feodor i of russia as a tsar in the header of a 1594 letter but in the main text the pope reverts to addressing feodor as lord of russia and grand duke of moscow which papal documents continued to use until 1673 186 in 1673 paul menesius advised pope clement x to refer to the russian sovereign as a tsar as he argued that it is the russian word for ruler similar to other regional titles like caliph or sharīf rather than meaning caesar 187 according to marshall poe the third rome theory first spread among clerics and for much of its early history russia still regarded moscow as subordinate to constantinople tsargrad a position also held by ivan iv 188 poe argues that philotheus doctrine of third rome may have been mostly forgotten in russia relegated to the old believers until shortly before the development of pan slavism hence the idea could not have directly influenced the foreign policies of peter and catherine though those tsars did compare themselves to the romans an expansionist version of third rome reappeared primarily after the coronation of alexander ii in 1855 a lens through which later russian writers would re interpret early modern russia arguably anachronistically 189 green primarily eastern orthodox regions in poland lithuania 1573 the problem of the two emperors also featured in polish russian disputes the muscovite grand princes added of all russia to their title marking the goal of gathering the russian lands under their rule including those under lithuanian control 190 and the polish lithuanian union became an obstacle for agreements with russia 191 the dispute also existed alongside religious competition between the poland lithuania and russia shortly after the moscow patriarchate of the orthodox church was established bishops in poland lithuania formed the 1595 union of brest to limit russian influence 192 following the transfer of the metropolis of kiev to the russian church in 1685 polish authorities also pressured orthodox bishops to join the ruthenian uniate church 193 in 1549 russia and poland lithuania agreed to use grand prince in the polish text and tsar in the russian text for a peace treaty 194 during the negotiations of the truce of yam zapolsky 1582 jesuit antonio possevino who served as mediator rejected the titles tsar or emperor as he believed that they could only be granted by the pope and that the single emperor of the christians had been transferred to the west when the byzantine emperor became less loyal the russian delegation replied with the claim that the grand prince vladimir the great was granted the title by roman emperors arcadius and honorius which possevino dismissed possevino also rejected moscow s second offer to use the title tsar of kazan and astrakhan assuming that the polish king would not accept a turkish or tatar title like tsar of the tatars to be used by a christian ruler apparently being unaware of the origin of tsar only in the russian version of the treaty was the tsar referred to as such 195 in 1610 polish prince władysław was elected tsar and claimed the title even after he was elected king of poland until 1634 196 in the treaty of perpetual peace of 1686 russia was officially recognized as a tsardom by poland 197 poland only recognized the title imperator in 1764 198 the emperors of the holy roman empire at first only recognized the russian ruler as zar von kazan und astrachan tsar of kazan and astrakhan in 1576 after repeated russian complaints maximilian ii addressed ivan iv as tsar in a letter 199 in 1617 matthias recognized michael of russia de jure as tsar 200 in the peace of westphalia 1648 the russian tsar was referred to as magnus dux moscoviae grand duke of moscow against their wishes 201 nevertheless this meant russia was accepted as part of the res publica christiana 202 the holy roman emperors still refused to address the tsar with the style of majesty a right which the holy roman empire had already granted to other monarchs to which the russian delegation replied in 1661 by styling emperor leopold i as kayserliche grossmächigkeit or korolevskoe velikomocnyj instead 203 prior to the embassy of peter the great in 1697 1698 russia s tsarist government still had a poor understanding of the holy roman empire and its constitution under peter use of the double headed eagle increased and other less byzantine symbols of the roman past were adopted such as portrayals of the tsar as an ancient roman emperor on coins minted after the battle of poltava in 1709 the great northern war brought russia into alliance with several north german princes and russian troops fought in northern germany in 1718 peter further published a letter sent to tsar vasily iii by the holy roman emperor maximilian i dated 4 august 1514 in which the emperor addressed the russian as kaiser spelled kayser and implicitly his equal 204 in october 1721 peter assumed the title imperator to preclude the possibility of translating his title as king rex 101 the holy roman emperors refused to recognise this new title it was pointed out that the letter from maximilian was the only example of using the kaiser title for russian monarchs peter s proposal that the russian and german monarchs alternate as premier rulers in europe was also rejected the emperor charles vi supported by france insisted that there could only be one emperor 180 despite the alliance between charles vi and catherine i of russia which was formally concluded in 1726 it was specifically stipulated that russian monarch was not to use the imperial title in correspondence with the holy roman emperor 205 and the alliance treaty omits any references thereto with charles vi being referred as suae sacrae caesareae et regiae catholicae majestatis his sacred caesarian and royal catholic majesty and catherine i as suae sacrae totius russiae majestatis her sacred majesty of all russia 206 officially recognizing her at least as majesty 198 the reason for gradual acceptance of the russian claims was the war of the austrian succession where both sides attempted to draw russia towards them in 1742 the vienna court of maria theresa formally recognized the russian imperial title though without admitting the russian ruler s parity her rival the emperor charles vii upon his coronation in 1742 initially refused to acknowledge russian pretensions however by the end of 1743 the course of the war and the influence of prussian allies which had recognized russian imperial title almost immediately in 1721 convinced him that some form of recognition had to be offered this was done in early 1744 however in this case charles vii only acted in his capacity as a bavarian elector and not as a holy roman emperor 207 by the time of his death the issue still had not been formally settled at the imperial level it was only in 1745 that the imperial electoral college acknowledged russian claims which were then confirmed in the document produced by the newly elected emperor francis i maria theresa s husband and formally ratified by the reichstag in 1746 208 209 210 france was the last major western kingdom to recognise the title a year earlier 198 three times between 1733 and 1762 russian troops fought alongside austrians within boundaries of the empire the ruler of russia from 1762 until 1796 catherine the great was a german princess in 1779 she helped broker the peace of teschen that ended the war of the bavarian succession thereafter russia claimed to be a guarantor of the imperial constitution as per the peace of westphalia 1648 with the same standing as france and sweden 180 in 1780 catherine ii called for an invasion of the ottoman empire and the creation of a new greek empire or restored eastern roman empire for which purposes an alliance was made between joseph ii s holy roman empire and catherine ii s russian empire 211 with her grandson konstantin pavlovich as a new emperor in his own right 212 the alliance between joseph and catherine was at the time heralded as a great success for both parties 213 neither the greek plan or the austro russian alliance would persist long nonetheless both empires would be part of the anti napoleonic coalitions as well as the concert of europe any possible holy roman russian dispute ended with the dissolution of the holy roman empire in 1806 ottoman russian dispute edit see also russo turkish wars russo crimean wars and 15th 16th century moscow constantinople schism left catherine the great s greek plan red marks the planned borders of the restored byzantine empire under her grandson konstantin pavlovich blue marks the planned borders of the kingdom of dacia under grigory potemkin the compensations for the habsburg monarchy are marked with yellow and the compensations for venice are marked with blue green right close up of the intended approximate borders of the restored byzantine empire red and the kingdom of dacia blue both the tsardom of russia and later russian empire and the ottoman empire claimed the succession of the byzantine empire specifically the pope married off sophia palaiologina to grand prince ivan iii in hope of starting a joint crusade to reclaim constantinople 89 but ivan iii had no plans for a war with the ottomans 214 in 1547 ivan iv crowned himself tsar claiming both the political and religious succession of the byzantine empire as part of their own translatio imperii of the third rome 215 by the 1570s tsar ivan iv stopped using the term brother towards other kings and only saw the holy roman emperor and the ottoman sultan as equal 181 the russians began to distinguish between the byzantine emperor who was the tsar for the orthodox church and the khan of the golden horde who was the tsar for the princes 216 217 under the reign of grand prince ivan iii 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