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each instruction set preceded by a single entry point with code compatible with all operating systems which executes a jump to the appropriate section alternative implementations store different executables in different forks each with its own entry point that is directly used by the operating system the use of fat binaries is not common in operating system software there are several alternatives to solve the same problem such as the use of an installer program to choose an architecture specific binary at install time such as with android multiple apks selecting an architecture specific binary at runtime such as with plan 9 s union directories and gnustep s fat bundles 2 3 distributing software in source code form and compiling it in place or the use of a virtual machine such as with java and just in time compilation contents 1 apollo 1 1 apollo s compound executables 2 apple 2 1 apple s fat binary 2 2 next s apple s multi architecture binaries 2 2 1 nextstep multi architecture binaries 2 2 2 mach o and mac os x 2 2 3 apple s universal binary 3 cp m and dos 3 1 combined com style binaries for cp m 80 and dos 3 2 combined binaries for cp m 86 and dos 3 3 combined com and sys files 3 4 crash protected system files 4 linux 4 1 fatelf universal binaries for linux 5 windows 5 1 fatpack 6 similar concepts 6 1 heterogeneous computing 6 2 fat objects 6 3 function multi versioning 7 see also 8 notes 9 references 10 further reading apollo edit apollo s compound executables edit in 1988 apollo computer s domain os sr10 1 introduced a new file type cmpexe compound executable that bundled binaries for motorola 680x0 and apollo prism executables 4 apple edit apple s fat binary edit a fat binary scheme smoothed the apple macintosh s transition beginning in 1994 from 68k microprocessors to powerpc microprocessors many applications for the old platform ran transparently on the new platform under an evolving emulation scheme but emulated code generally runs slower than native code applications released as fat binaries took up more storage space but they ran at full speed on either platform this was achieved by packaging both a 68000 compiled version and a powerpc compiled version of the same program into their executable files 5 6 the older 68k code cfm 68k or classic 68k continued to be stored in the resource fork while the newer powerpc code was contained in the data fork in pef format 7 8 9 fat binaries were larger than programs supporting only the powerpc or 68k which led to the creation of a number of utilities that would strip out the unneeded version 5 6 in the era of small hard drives when 80 mb hard drives were a common size these utilities were sometimes useful as program code was generally a large percentage of overall drive usage and stripping the unneeded members of a fat binary would free up a significant amount of space on a hard drive next s apple s multi architecture binaries edit nextstep multi architecture binaries edit fat binaries were a feature of next s nextstep openstep operating system starting with nextstep 3 1 in nextstep they were called multi architecture binaries multi architecture binaries were originally intended to allow software to be compiled to run both on next s motorola 68k based hardware and on intel ia 32 based pcs running nextstep with a single binary file for both platforms 10 it was later used to allow openstep applications to run on pcs and the various risc platforms openstep supported multi architecture binary files are in a special archive format in which a single file stores one or more mach o subfiles for each architecture supported by the multi architecture binary every multi architecture binary starts with a structure struct fat_header containing two unsigned integers the first integer magic is used as a magic number to identify this file as a fat binary the second integer nfat_arch defines how many mach o files the archive contains how many instances of the same program for different architectures after this header there are nfat_arch number of fat_arch structures struct fat_arch this structure defines the offset from the start of the file at which to find the file the alignment the size and the cpu type and subtype which the mach o binary within the archive is targeted at the version of the gnu compiler collection shipped with the developer tools was able to cross compile source code for the different architectures on which nextstep was able to run for example it was possible to choose the target architectures with multiple arch options with the architecture as argument this was a convenient way to distribute a program for nextstep running on different architectures it was also possible to create libraries e g using nextstep s libtool with different targeted object files mach o and mac os x edit apple computer acquired next in 1996 and continued to work with the openstep code mach o became the native object file format in apple s free darwin operating system 2000 and apple s mac os x 2001 and next s multi architecture binaries continued to be supported by the operating system under mac os x multi architecture binaries can be used to support multiple variants of an architecture for instance to have different versions of 32 bit code optimized for the powerpc g3 powerpc g4 and powerpc 970 generations of processors it can also be used to support multiple architectures such as 32 bit and 64 bit powerpc or powerpc and x86 or x86 64 and arm64 11 apple s universal binary edit main article universal binary apple universal binary logo in 2005 apple announced another transition from powerpc processors to intel x86 processors apple promoted the distribution of new applications that support both powerpc and x86 natively by using executable files in multi architecture binary format 12 apple calls such programs universal applications and calls the file format universal binary as perhaps a way to distinguish this new transition from the previous transition or other uses of multi architecture binary format universal binary format was not necessary for forward migration of pre existing native powerpc applications from 2006 to 2011 apple supplied rosetta a powerpc ppc to x86 dynamic binary translator to play this role however rosetta had a fairly steep performance overhead so developers were encouraged to offer both ppc and intel binaries using universal binaries the obvious cost of universal binary is that every installed executable file is larger but in the years since the release of the ppc hard drive space has greatly outstripped executable size while a universal binary might be double the size of a single platform version of the same application free space resources generally dwarf the code size which becomes a minor issue in fact often a universal binary application will be smaller than two single architecture applications because program resources can be shared rather than duplicated if not all of the architectures are required the lipo and ditto command line applications can be used to remove versions from the multi architecture binary image thereby creating what is sometimes called a thin binary in addition multi architecture binary executables can contain code for both 32 bit and 64 bit versions of powerpc and x86 allowing applications to be shipped in a form that supports 32 bit processors but that makes use of the larger address space and wider data paths when run on 64 bit processors in versions of the xcode development environment from 2 1 through 3 2 running on mac os x 10 4 through mac os x 10 6 apple included utilities which allowed applications to be targeted for both intel and powerpc architecture universal binaries could eventually contain up to four versions of the executable code 32 bit powerpc 32 bit x86 64 bit powerpc and 64 bit x86 however powerpc support was removed from xcode 4 0 and is therefore not available to developers running mac os x 10 7 or greater in 2020 apple announced another transition this time from intel x86 processors to apple silicon arm64 architecture to smooth the transition apple added support for the universal 2 binary format universal 2 binary files are multi architecture binary files containing both x86 64 and arm64 executable code allowing the binary to run natively on both 64 bit intel and 64 bit apple silicon additionally apple introduced rosetta 2 dynamic binary translation for x86 to arm64 instruction set to allow users to run applications that do not have universal binary variants cp m and dos edit combined com style binaries for cp m 80 and dos edit cp m 80 mp m 80 concurrent cp m cp m plus personal cp m 80 scp and msx dos executables for the intel 8080 and z80 processor families use the same com file extension as dos compatible operating systems for intel 8086 binaries nb 1 in both cases programs are loaded at offset 100h and executed by jumping to the first byte in the file 13 14 as the opcodes of the two processor families are not compatible attempting to start a program under the wrong operating system leads to incorrect and unpredictable behaviour in order to avoid this some methods have been devised to build fat binaries which contain both a cp m 80 and a dos program preceded by initial code which is interpreted correctly on both platforms 14 the methods either combine two fully functional programs each built for their corresponding environment or add stubs which cause the program to exit gracefully if started on the wrong processor for this to work the first few instructions sometimes also called gadget headers 15 in the com file have to be valid code for both 8086 and 8080 processors which would cause the processors to branch into different locations within the code 15 for example the utilities in simeon cran s emulator myz80 start with the opcode sequence ebh 52h ebh 16 17 an 8086 sees this as a jump and reads its next instruction from offset 154h whereas an 8080 or compatible processor goes straight through and reads its next instruction from 103h a similar sequence used for this purpose is ebh 03h c3h 18 19 john c elliott s fatbin 20 21 22 is a utility to combine a cp m 80 and a dos com file into one executable 16 23 his derivative of the original pmsfx modifies archives created by yoshihiko mino s pmarc to be self extractable under both cp m 80 and dos starting with ebh 18h 2dh 70h 6dh 73h 2dh to also include the pms signature for self extracting pma archives 24 16 23 17 thereby also representing a form of executable ascii code another method to keep a dos compatible operating system from erroneously executing com programs for cp m 80 and msx dos machines 14 is to start the 8080 code with c3h 03h 01h which is decoded as a ret instruction by x86 processors thereby gracefully exiting the program nb 2 while it will be decoded as jp 103h instruction by 8080 processors and simply jump to the next instruction in the program similar the cp m assembler z80asm by slr systems would display an error message when erroneously run on dos 16 some cp m 80 3 0 com files may have one or more rsx overlays attached to them by gencom 25 if so they start with an extra 256 byte header one page in order to indicate this the first byte in the header is set to magic byte c9h which works both as a signature identifying this type of com file to the cp m 3 0 executable loader as well as a ret instruction for 8080 compatible processors which leads to a graceful exit if the file is executed under older versions of cp m 80 nb 2 c9h is never appropriate as the first byte of a program for any x86 processor it has different meanings for different generations nb 3 but is never a meaningful first byte the executable loader in some versions of dos rejects com files that start with c9h avoiding incorrect operation similar overlapping code sequences have also been devised for combined z80 6502 16 8086 68000 16 or x86 mips arm binaries 15 combined binaries for cp m 86 and dos edit cp m 86 and dos do not share a common file extension for executables nb 1 thus it is not normally possible to confuse executables however early versions of dos had so much in common with cp m in terms of its architecture that some early dos programs were developed to share binaries containing executable code one program known to do this was wordstar 3 2x which used identical overlay files in their ports for cp m 86 and ms dos 26 and used dynamically fixed up code to adapt to the differing calling conventions of these operating systems at runtime 26 digital research s gsx for cp m 86 and dos also shares binary identical 16 bit drivers 27 combined com and sys files edit dos device drivers typically with file extension sys start with a file header whose first four bytes are ffffffffh by convention although this is not a requirement 28 this is fixed up dynamically by the operating system when the driver loads typically in the dos bios when it executes device statements in config sys since dos does not reject files with a com extension to be loaded per device and does not test for ffffffffh it is possible to combine a com program and a device driver into the same file 29 28 by placing a jump instruction to the entry point of the embedded com program within the first four bytes of the file three bytes are usually sufficient 28 if the embedded program and the device driver sections share a common portion of code or data it is necessary for the code to deal with being loaded at offset 0100h as a com style program and at 0000h as a device driver 29 for shared code loaded at the wrong offset but not designed to be position independent this requires an internal address fix up 29 similar to what would otherwise already have been carried out by a relocating loader except for that in this case it has to be done by the loaded program itself this is similar to the situation with self relocating drivers but with the program already loaded at the target location by the operating system s loader crash protected system files edit under dos some files by convention have file extensions which do not reflect their actual file type nb 4 for example country sys 30 is not a dos device driver nb 5 but a binary nls database file for use with the config sys country directive and the nlsfunc driver 30 the pc dos and dr dos system files ibmbio com and ibmdos com are special binary images loaded by bootstrap loaders not com style programs nb 5 trying to load country sys with a device statement or executing ibmbio com or ibmdos com at the command prompt will cause unpredictable results nb 4 nb 6 it is sometimes possible to avoid this by utilizing techniques similar to those described above for example dr dos 7 02 and higher incorporate a safety feature developed by matthias r paul 31 if these files are called inappropriately tiny embedded stubs will just display some file version information and exit gracefully 32 31 33 30 additionally the message is specifically crafted to follow certain magic patterns recognized by the ext...
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