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nged now wars are between imperial powers 101 the anatomy of peace 1945 of emery reves argued expansion is forever closed and the historic trend of expansion resulted in direct collision between the remaining powers 102 in another 1945 book the precarious balance on centuries of the european power struggle ludwig dehio explained the durability of the european states system by its overseas expansion overseas expansion and the system of states were born at the same time the vitality that burst the bounds of the western world also destroyed its unity 103 in a similar thesis the overseas world provided european empires with an enormous outlet and thus prevented europe from unifying into a single european empire the european powers turned their exceeding energies outward and the internal european power was balanced correspondingly when the space for expansion ended these powers became destined for head on collisions 104 hans morgenthau wrote that the imperial expansion into relatively empty periphery in the 18th and 19th centuries deflected great power politics thereby reducing conflict but by the late 19th century the consolidation of western empires was consummated and territorial gains could only be made at the expense of one another 105 john h herz outlined one chief function of the overseas expansion and the impact of its end a european balance of power could be maintained or adjusted because it was relatively easy to divert european conflicts into overseas directions and adjust them there thus the openness of the world contributed to the consolidation of the territorial system the end of the world frontier and the resulting closedness of an interdependent world inevitably affected the system s effectiveness 106 michael heffernan summarized the view for some commentators the passing of the 19th century seemed destined to mark the end of this long era of european empire building the unexplored and unclaimed blank spaces on the world map were rapidly diminishing and the sense of global closure prompted an anxious fin de siècle debate about the future of the great empires the closure of the global imperial system implied the beginning of a new era of intensifying inter imperial struggle along borders that now straddled the globe 94 the prevalence of historical forces over human agency is reflected in memoirs of those who waged world war i 107 nations churchill associated acted as planetary bodies drawing each other into due collision with diplomacy helpless to prevent cosmos from plunging into chaos 108 with their nations slithering over the brink into the boiling cauldron of war in the words of david lloyd george statesmen felt standing on a planet that had been suddenly wrenched from its orbit and was spinning wildly into the unknown lloyd george described the waiting on august 4 1914 for the hour of the ultimatum to germany as britain s most fateful hour since she arose out of the deep boom was big ben s signal to hurl millions to their doom the big clock echoed like the hummer of destiny doom doom doom 109 110 impact of colonial rivalry and aggression on the pre 1914 europe edit world empires and colonies around 1914 imperial rivalry and the consequences of the search for imperial security or for imperial expansion had important consequences for the origins of world war i in view of richard overy the origins of both world wars can only be understood through the prism of the fresh drive to empire since the 1870s 111 imperial rivalries among france britain russia and germany played an important part in the creation of the triple entente and the relative isolation of germany imperial opportunism in the form of the italian attack on ottoman libyan provinces also encouraged the balkan wars of 1912 13 which changed the balance of power in the balkans to the detriment of austria hungary citation needed some historians such as margaret macmillan believe that germany created its own diplomatic isolation in europe in part by an aggressive and pointless imperial policy known as weltpolitik others such as clark believe that german isolation was the unintended consequence of a détente among britain france and russia the détente was driven by britain s desire for imperial security in relation to france in north africa and to russia in persia and india citation needed either way the isolation was important because it left germany few options but to ally itself more strongly with austria hungary leading ultimately to unconditional support for austria hungary s punitive war on serbia during the july crisis citation needed german isolation edit european officials staking claims to africa in the berlin conference 1884 otto von bismarck disliked the idea of an overseas empire but supported france s colonization in africa because it diverted the french away from continental europe and revanchism after 1870 germany s new course in foreign affairs weltpolitik world policy was adopted in the 1890s after bismarck s dismissal its aim was ostensibly to transform germany into a global power through assertive diplomacy the acquisition of overseas colonies and the development of a large navy citation needed some historians notably macmillan and hew strachan believe that a consequence of weltpolitik and germany s associated assertiveness was to isolate it weltpolitik particularly as expressed in germany s objections to france s growing influence in morocco in 1904 and 1907 also helped cement the triple entente the anglo german naval race isolated germany by reinforcing britain s preference for agreements with germany s continental rivals france and russia 112 historians like ferguson and clark believe germany s isolation was the unintended consequences of the need for britain to defend its empire against threats from france and russia they downplay the impact of weltpolitik and the anglo german naval race which ended in 1911 citation needed britain and france signed agreements in 1904 known as the entente cordiale most importantly it granted freedom of action to britain in egypt and france in morocco equally the 1907 anglo russian convention improved british russian relations by solidifying boundaries that identified respective control in persia afghanistan and tibet citation needed the alignment between britain france and russia became known as the triple entente however the triple entente was not conceived as a counterweight to the triple alliance but as a formula to secure imperial security among the three powers 113 the impact of the entente was twofold improving british relations with france and its ally russia and showing the importance to britain of good relations with germany clark states it was not that antagonism toward germany caused its isolation but rather that the new system itself channeled and intensified hostility towards the german empire 114 imperial opportunism edit the construction of the berlin baghdad railway was a contributing factor to the outbreak of war germany had sought to connect its capital to baghdad and the persian gulf to facilitate economic and military access to the region and the rest of its colonial empire bypassing the british controlled suez canal and challenged british and russian interests and influence in the middle east and persia 115 the italo turkish war of 1911 1912 was fought between the ottoman empire and the kingdom of italy in north africa the war made it clear that no great power still appeared to wish to support the ottoman empire which paved the way for the balkan wars citation needed the status of morocco had been guaranteed by international agreement and when france attempted a great expansion of its influence there without the assent of all other signatories germany opposed and prompted the moroccan crises the tangier crisis of 1905 and the agadir crisis of 1911 the intent of german policy was to drive a wedge between the british and french but in both cases it produced the opposite effect and germany was isolated diplomatically most notably by lacking the support of italy despite it being in the triple alliance the french protectorate over morocco was established officially in 1912 citation needed in 1914 however the african scene was peaceful the continent was almost fully divided up by the imperial powers with only liberia and ethiopia still independent there were no major disputes there pitting any two european powers against each other 116 role of businesses and financial institutions edit lenin s interpretation edit marxism attributes war to economic interests and rivalries in this case imperialism vladimir lenin argued that imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism which emerges from the free competition stage of capitalism and is characterized by the presence of five basic features 1 the concentration of production and capital has developed to such a high stage that it has created monopolies which play a decisive role in economic life 2 the merging of bank capital with industrial capital and the creation on the basis of this finance capital of a financial oligarchy 3 the export of capital as distinguished from the export of commodities acquires exceptional importance 4 the formation of international monopolist capitalist associations which share the world among themselves and 5 the territorial division of the whole world among the biggest capitalist powers is completed 117 lenin concluded that these five features of imperialism had been established by the turn of the 20th century after the great powers had spent the final decades of the prior century acquiring nearly all the remaining territory of the world that had not yet been colonized 118 the largest and most lucrative uncolonized or semi colonized territories at the time of the war were that of persia iran turkey including all of the pre industrial territories of the declining ottoman empire and most of china beyond the treaty ports 118 having completed the division of the world among themselves at the beginning of the century the developed capitalist states would thereafter compete for hegemony in the form of a redivision of those territories both in the industrialized areas e g german appetite for belgium french appetite for lorraine and in primarily agrarian areas 117 119 other views edit the united kingdom s pound sterling was the primary reserve currency of much of the world in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century the united kingdom was the primary exporter of manufactured goods and services and over 60 of world trade was invoiced in pounds sterling british banks were also expanding overseas london was the world centre for insurance and commodity markets and british capital was the leading source of foreign investment around the world sterling soon became the standard currency used for international commercial transactions 120 richard hamilton observed that the argument went that since industrialists and bankers were seeking raw materials new markets and new investments overseas if one was strategically blocked by other powers the obvious or necessary solution was war 121 hamilton somewhat criticized the view that the war was launched to secure colonies but agreed that imperialism may have been on the mind of key decision makers he argued that it was not necessarily for logical economic reasons hamilton noted that bismarck was famously not moved by such peer pressure and ended germany s limited imperialist movement he regarded colonial ambitions as a waste of money but simultaneously recommended them to other nations 122 while some bankers and industrialists tried to curb wilhelm ii away from war their efforts ended in failure there is no evidence they ever received a direct response from the kaiser chancellor or foreign secretary or that their advice was discussed in depth by the foreign office or the general staff the german leadership measured power not in financial ledgers but land and military might 123 hamilton argued that generally speaking the european business leaders were in favour of profits and peace allowed for stability and investment opportunities across national borders but war brought the disruption of trade the confiscation of holdings and the risk of increased taxation while arms manufacturers could make money selling weapons at home they could also lose access to foreign markets krupp a major arms manufacturer started the war with 48 million marks in profits but ended it 148 million marks in debt and the first year of peace saw further losses of 36 million marks 124 125 william mulligan argues that while economic and political factors were often interdependent economic factors tended towards peace prewar trade wars and financial rivalries never threatened to escalate into conflict governments would mobilise bankers and financiers to serve their interests rather than the reverse the commercial and financial elite recognized peace as necessary for economic development and used its influence to resolve diplomatic crises economic rivalries existed but were framed largely by political concerns prior to the war there were few signs that the international economy stood for war in the summer of 1914 126 social darwinism edit main article social darwinism social darwinism was a theory of human evolution loosely based on darwinism that influenced many european intellectuals and strategic thinkers from 1870 to 1914 it emphasised that struggle between nations and races was natural and that only the fittest nations deserved to survive 127 it gave an impetus to german assertiveness as a world economic and military power aimed at competing with france and britain for world power german colonial rule in africa from 1884 to 1914 was an expression of nationalism and moral superiority which was justified by constructing an image of the natives as other the approach highlighted racist views of mankind german colonization was characterized by the use of repressive violence in the name of culture and civilisation germany s cultural missionary project boasted that its colonial programmes were humanitarian and educational endeavours furthermore the wide acceptance of social darwinism by intellectuals justified germany s right to acquire colonial territories as a matter of the survival of the fittest according to the historian michael schubert 128 129 the model suggested an explanation of why some ethnic groups then called races had been for so long antagonistic such as germans and slavs they were natural rivals destined to clash senior german generals like helmuth von moltke the younger talked in apocalyptic terms about the need for germans to fight for their existence as a people and culture macmillan states reflecting the social darwinist theories of the era many germans saw slavs especially russia as the natural opponent of the teutonic races 130 also the chief of the austro hungarian general staff declared a people that lays down its weapons seals its fate 130 in july 1914 the austrian press ...
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