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stella the defence of poetry and the countess of pembroke s arcadia poems intended to be set to music as songs such as those by thomas campion became popular as printed literature was disseminated more widely in households john donne was another important figure in elizabethan poetry see jacobean poetry below drama edit main article english renaissance theatre among the earliest elizabethan plays are gorboduc 1561 by sackville and norton and thomas kyd s the spanish tragedy 1592 gorboduc is notable especially as the first verse drama in english to employ blank verse and for the way it developed elements from the earlier morality plays and senecan tragedy in the direction which would be followed by later playwrights 56 the spanish tragedy 57 is an elizabethan tragedy written by thomas kyd between 1582 and 1592 which was popular and influential in its time and established a new genre in english literature theatre the revenge play 58 william shakespeare william shakespeare stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed shakespeare wrote plays in a variety of genres including histories such as richard iii and henry iv tragedies such as hamlet othello and macbeth comedies such as midsummer night s dream as you like it and twelfth night and the late romances or tragicomedies shakespeare s career continues in the jacobean period other important figures in elizabethan theatre include christopher marlowe and ben jonson thomas dekker john fletcher and francis beaumont stuart period 1603 1714 edit see also stuart period the house of stuart ruled england between 1603 and 1714 with an interregnum between 1649 and 1660 the stuart period encompasses the jacobean era the caroline era the interregnum and the restoration jacobean era 1603 1625 edit see also jacobean era drama edit in the early 17th century shakespeare wrote the so called problem plays as well as a number of his best known tragedies including macbeth and king lear 59 in his final period shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays including the tempest less bleak than the tragedies these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors 60 after shakespeare s death the poet and dramatist ben jonson was the leading literary figure of the jacobean era jonson s aesthetics hark back to the middle ages and his characters embody the theory of humours which was based on contemporary medical theory 61 jonson popularised the comedy of humours which focuses on characters who exhibit overriding traits or humours that dominate their personality comedies by jonson include volpone the alchemist and bartholomew fair thomas middleton s play a chaste maid in cheapside is an example of city comedy francis beaumont and john fletcher commonly referred to as beaumont and fletcher collaborated in writing tragicomedies which include philaster a king and no king and the scornful lady another popular genre of drama during the jacobean era was the revenge play or the revenge tragedy this genre was first established in the elizabethan era by thomas kyd with the play the spanish tragedy and it was further developed in the jacobean era through a number of important plays like bussy d ambois and the revenge of bussy d ambois by george chapman and the atheist s tragedy by cyril tourneur and valentinian by john fletcher john webster wrote the white devil and the duchess of malfi while thomas middleton wrote the revenger s tragedy formerly attributed to tourneur but currently attributed to middleton and the second maiden s tragedy poetry edit george chapman is remembered chiefly for his famous translation in 1616 of homer s iliad and odyssey into english verse 62 this was the first ever complete translations of either poem into the english language the translation had a profound influence on english literature and inspired john keats s famous sonnet on first looking into chapman s homer 1816 shakespeare popularized the english sonnet which made significant changes to petrarch s model a collection of 154 by sonnets dealing with themes such as the passage of time love beauty and mortality were first published in a 1609 quarto besides shakespeare and ben jonson the major poets of the early 17th century included the metaphysical poets john donne george herbert henry vaughan andrew marvell and richard crashaw 63 their style was characterized by wit and metaphysical conceits that is far fetched or unusual similes or metaphors 64 prose edit the most important prose work of the early 17th century was the king james bible this one of the most massive translation projects in the history of english up to this time was started in 1604 and completed in 1611 this represents the culmination of a tradition of bible translation into english that began with the work of william tyndale and it became the standard bible of the church of england 65 caroline era 1625 1649 and interregnum 1649 1660 edit see also caroline era and british interregnum poetry edit the metaphysical poets john donne and george herbert were still alive after 1625 and later in the 17th century a second generation of metaphysical poets were writing including richard crashaw andrew marvell thomas traherne and henry vaughan the cavalier poets were another important group of 17th century poets who came from the classes that supported king charles i during the english civil war 1642 1651 king charles reigned from 1625 and was executed in 1649 the best known of the cavalier poets are robert herrick richard lovelace thomas carew and sir john suckling they were not a formal group but all were influenced by ben jonson most of the cavalier poets were courtiers with notable exceptions for example robert herrick was not a courtier but his style marks him as a cavalier poet cavalier works make use of allegory and classical allusions and are influenced by roman authors horace cicero and ovid john milton was the last great poet of the english renaissance 66 and published a number of works before 1660 including l allegro 1631 il penseroso 1634 the masque comus 1638 and lycidas 1638 stuart restoration 1660 1714 edit see also stuart restoration main article restoration literature this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed march 2016 learn how and when to remove this message during the interregnum the royalist forces attached to the court of charles i went into exile with the twenty year old charles ii the official break in literary culture caused by censorship and radically moralist standards under oliver cromwell s puritan regime created a gap in literary tradition allowing a seemingly fresh start for all forms of literature after the restoration starting with the reign of charles ii restoration period saw important developments regarding science journalism philosophy and literary criticism regarding science the founding of the royal society 1660 and the publication of the sceptical chymist 1661 by robert boyle are notable regarding journalism the publication of the london gazette 1665 is notable which claims to be the oldest surviving english newspaper and the oldest continuously published newspaper in the uk having been first published on 7 november 1665 as the oxford gazette 67 68 regarding philosophy two treatises of government 1689 by john locke is notable lastly regarding literary criticism essay of dramatick poesie 1668 by john dryden and short view of the immorality and profaneness of the english stage 1698 by jeremy collier are notable works poetry edit john milton religious epic poem paradise lost published in 1667 john milton one of the greatest english poets is best known for paradise lost 1667 an epic poem in blank verse concerning the biblical story of the fall of man the temptation of adam and eve by the fallen angel satan and their expulsion from the garden of eden milton soon followed this work with paradise regained 1671 again an epic poem in blank verse which shares similar theological themes with the previous work with milton this time dealing primarily with the temptation of christ as recounted in the gospel of luke john dryden was an influential english poet literary critic translator and playwright who dominated the literary life of restoration england to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the age of dryden he established the heroic couplet as a standard form of english poetry dryden s greatest achievements were in satiric verse in works like the mock heroic macflecknoe 1682 69 alexander pope was heavily influenced by dryden and often borrowed from him other writers in the 18th century were equally influenced by both dryden and pope prose edit prose in the restoration period is dominated by christian religious writing but the restoration also saw the beginnings of two genres that would dominate later periods fiction and journalism religious writing often strayed into political and economic writing just as political and economic writing implied or directly addressed religion the restoration moderated most of the more strident sectarian writing but radicalism persisted after the restoration puritan authors such as john milton were forced to retire from public life or adapt and those authors who had preached against monarchy and who had participated directly in the regicide of charles i were partially suppressed consequently violent writings were forced underground and many of those who had served in the interregnum attenuated their positions in the restoration john bunyan stands out beyond other religious authors of the period bunyan s the pilgrim s progress is an allegory of personal salvation and a guide to the christian life john bunyan s the pilgrim s progress 1678 during the restoration period the most common manner of getting news would have been a broadsheet publication a single large sheet of paper might have a written usually partisan account of an event it is impossible to satisfactorily date the beginning of the novel in english however long fiction and fictional biographies began to distinguish themselves from other forms in england during the restoration period an existing tradition of romance fiction in france and spain was popular in england one of the most significant figures in the rise of the novel in the restoration period is aphra behn author of oroonoko 1688 who was not only the first professional female novelist but she may be among the first professional novelists of either sex in england drama edit main articles restoration comedy comedy of manners heroic drama she tragedy restoration spectacular and semi opera as soon as the previous puritan regime s ban on public stage representations was lifted drama recreated itself quickly and abundantly 70 the most famous plays of the early restoration period are the unsentimental or hard comedies of john dryden william wycherley and george etherege which reflect the atmosphere at court and celebrate an aristocratic macho lifestyle of unremitting sexual intrigue and conquest after a sharp drop in both quality and quantity in the 1680s the mid 1690s saw a brief second flowering of the drama especially comedy comedies like william congreve s the way of the world 1700 and john vanbrugh s the relapse 1696 and the provoked wife 1697 were softer and more middle class in ethos very different from the aristocratic extravaganza twenty years earlier and aimed at a wider audience augustan literature beginnings edit main article augustan literature although the term augustan literature is more closely associated with the later georgian era its beginnings are to be found in the late stuart period early examples include a tale of a tub 1704 and an argument against abolishing christianity 1708 by jonathan swift and an essay on criticism 1711 by alexander pope georgian era 1714 1837 edit see also georgian era the georgian era is named after the hanoverian kings george i george ii george iii and george iv the definition of the georgian era is also often extended to include the relatively short reign of william iv which ended with his death in 1837 the georgian era saw the industrial revolution and the emergence of important british enlightenment philosophers like george berkeley david hume and adam smith who followed earlier 1600s philosophers like francis bacon thomas hobbes and john locke augustan literature 1714 1745 edit main article augustan literature this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed march 2016 learn how and when to remove this message augustan literature is a style of british literature produced in the first half of the 18th century and ending in the 1740s with the deaths of alexander pope and jonathan swift in 1744 and 1745 respectively it was a literary epoch that featured the rapid development of the novel an explosion in satire the mutation of drama from political satire into melodrama and an evolution toward poetry of personal exploration in philosophy it was an age increasingly dominated by empiricism while in the writings of political economy it marked the evolution of mercantilism as a formal philosophy the development of capitalism and the triumph of trade the term augustan literature derives from authors of the 1720s and 1730s who responded to a term that george i of great britain preferred for himself while george i meant the title to reflect his might they instead saw in it a reflection of ancient rome s transition from rough and ready literature to highly political and highly polished literature it is an age of exuberance and scandal of enormous energy and inventiveness and outrage that reflected an era when english welsh scottish and irish people found themselves in the midst of an expanding economy and lowering barriers to education poetry edit main article augustan poetry it was during this time that the poet james thomson produced his melancholy the seasons 1728 1730 and edward young wrote his poem night thoughts 1742 though the most outstanding poet of the age is alexander pope 1688 1744 it is also the era that saw a serious competition over the proper model for the pastoral in criticism poets struggled with a doctrine of decorum of matching proper words with proper sense and of achieving a diction that matched the gravity of a subject at the same time the mock heroic was at its zenith and pope s rape of the lock 1712 1717 and the dunciad 1728 1743 are still considered to be the greatest mock heroic poems ever written 71 pope also translated the iliad 1715 1720 and the odyssey 1725 1726 since his death pope has been in a constant state of re evaluation 72 drama edit main article augustan drama drama in the early part of the period featured the last play...
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