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ץ qof ק resh ר shin ש tav ת note final forms are to the left of the initial medial forms historical forms edit this table shows the development of cursive hebrew from the 7th through the 19th centuries this is discussed in the following section which makes reference to the columns in the table numbered at foot 1 through 14 figure 3 cursive writing jewish encyclopedia 1901 1906 column incantation upon babylonian dish 6 egyptian 12th century constantinople 1506 10th century spanish dated 1480 spanish 10th century provençal 10th century italian 10th century greek dated 1375 italian dated 1451 italian 10th century german 10th century eleazer of worms copied at rome in 1515 by elias levita 7 ashkenazi 19th century history edit figure 1 signature of the baal shem tov some time in the 18th century written in the cursive hebrew script the brief inscriptions daubed in red ink upon the walls of the catacombs of venosa are probably the oldest examples of cursive script still longer texts in a cursive alphabet are furnished by the clay bowls found in babylonia and bearing exorcisms against magical influences and evil spirits these bowls date from the 7th or 8th century and some of the letters are written in a form that is very antiquated figure 3 column 1 somewhat less of a cursive nature is the manuscript which dates from the 8th century 8 columns 2 14 exhibit cursive scripts of various countries and centuries the differences visible in the square alphabets are much more apparent for instance the sephardi rounds off still more and as in arabic there is a tendency to run the lower lines to the left whereas the ashkenazi script appears cramped and disjointed instead of the little ornaments at the upper ends of the stems in the letters שעט נז ג ץ a more or less weak flourish of the line appears for the rest the cursive of the codices remains fairly true to the square text documents of a private nature were certainly written in a much more running hand as the sample from one of the oldest arabic letters written with hebrew letters possibly the 10th century clearly shows in the papyrus in führer durch die ausstellung table xix vienna 1894 compare figure 3 column 4 however since the preservation of such letters were not held to be of importance material of this nature from the earlier times is very scarce and as a consequence the development of the script is very hard to follow the last two columns of figure 3 exhibit the ashkenazi cursive script of a later date the next to the last is taken from a manuscript of elias levita the accompanying specimen presents sephardi script in this flowing cursive alphabet the ligatures appear more often they occur especially in letters which have a sharp turn to the left ג ז כ נ צ ח and above all in נ whose great open bow offers ample space for another letter see figure 2 the following are the successive stages in the development of each letter alef is separated into two parts the first being written as and the perpendicular stroke placed at the left by the turn of the 20th century ashkenazi cursive had these two elements separated thus c and the acute angle was rounded it received also an abbreviated form connected with the favorite old ligature and it is to this ligature of alef and lamed that the contracted oriental aleph owes its origin figure 3 column 7 in writing bet the lower part necessitated an interruption and to overcome this obstacle it was made and with the total omission of the whole lower line in gimel the left hand stroke is lengthened more and more dalet had its stroke put on obliquely to distinguish it from resh however since in rapid writing it easily assumed a form similar in appearance to resh dalet in analogy with ב was later changed to a transformation very similar to this took place in the cases of final kaf and of qof see columns 2 5 11 14 except that kaf opened out a trifle more than qof the lower part of zayin was bent sharply to the right and received a little hook at the bottom the left hand stroke of ṭet was lengthened lamed gradually lost its semicircle until as in both nabataean and syriac by the turn of the 20th century it became a simple stroke which was bent sharply toward the right in the modern script today the lamed has regained its semicircle final mem branches out at the bottom and in its latest stage is drawn out either to the left or straight down in samekh the same development also took place but it afterward became again a simple circle to write ayin without removing the pen from the surface its two strokes were joined with a curl the two forms of the letter pe spread out in a marked flourish for tsadi the right hand head is made longer at first only to a small degree but later on to a considerable extent in the beginning shin develops similarly to the same letter in nabataean but afterward the central stroke is lengthened upward like the right arm of tsadi and finally it is joined with the left stroke and the first stroke is left off altogether the letters ה ד ח ן נ ר ת have undergone little modification they have been rounded out and simplified by the omission of the heads samaritan hebrew edit the samaritans are an ethnic group descended from the israelites and are a sister people to the jews whereas the israelites and later hebrews suffered a number of exoduses and deportations over the course of history samaritans for the most part remained in israel since ancient times as a result the hebrew language of the samaritans is written in a unique abjad distinct from that of hebrew this abjad is called the samaritan alphabet thanks to the samaritans sedentary residence in israel the script of samaritan hebrew is a direct descendant of the paleo hebrew alphabet the script which the jews abandoned in favor of the ktav ashuri script in the 4th century bce like standard hebrew samaritan hebrew has its own cursive script citation needed a laf ࠀ bit ࠁ ga man ࠂ da lat ࠃ iy ࠄ ba ࠅ zen ࠆ it ࠇ tit ࠈ yut ࠉ kaf ࠊ la bat ࠋ mim ࠌ nun ࠍ sin gat ࠎ in ࠏ fi ࠐ sa diy ࠑ quf ࠒ rish ࠓ shan ࠔ taf ࠕ see also edit cursive handwriting judeo arabic languages ruqʿah script solitreo notes edit yardeni ada 2002 the book of hebrew script history palaeography script styles calligraphy design the british library p 97 isbn 1 58456 087 8 zucker sheva 1994 yiddish an introduction to the language literature and culture vol 1 new york city isbn 1 877909 66 1 cite book cs1 maint location missing publisher link zucker sheva 2002 yiddish an introduction to the language literature and culture vol 2 new york city isbn 1 877909 75 0 cite book cs1 maint location missing publisher link varol marie christine 2008 manual of judeo spanish language and culture university of maryland press p 28 isbn 978 1 934309 19 3 orr stav jonathan 2006 learn to write the hebrew script aleph through the looking glass yale university press isbn 0 300 10841 9 in corpus inscriptionum hebraicarum 18 german ashkenazi british museum additional manuser of 27199 paleographical society oriental series lxxix hebrew papyri steinschneider hebräische papyrusfragmente aus dem fayyum in aegyptische zeitschrift xvii 93 et seq and table vii c i h cols 120 et seq erman and krebs aus den papyrus der königlichen museen p 290 berlin 1899 for the hebrew papyri in the collection of erzherzog rainer see d h müller and d kaufmann in mitteilungen aus der sammlung der papyrus erzherzog rainer i 38 and in führer durch die sammlung etc pp 261 et seq external links edit cursive hebrew fonts for download at www oketz com ladinotype system for solitreo and rashi cursive hebrew in the 1901 1906 jewish encyclopedia this article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain v t e hebrew language history biblical northern dialect mishnaic medieval modern writing alphabet history transliteration to english from english gematria ancient hebrew writings inscriptions papyri list of hebrew bible manuscripts reading traditions ashkenazi sephardi romaniote italian mizrahi syrian yemenite samaritan tiberian extinct palestinian extinct babylonian extinct orthography eras biblical scripts rashi braille ashuri cursive crowning paleo hebrew samaritan solitreo alphabet alef beth gimel daleth he waw zayin heth teth yod kaf lamed mem nun samech ayin pe sade qof resh shin taw niqqud tiberian babylonian palestinian samaritan shewa hireq sere segol pathah qames holem qibbus shureq dagesh mappiq maqqaf rafe sin shin dot spelling with niqqud missing full mater lectionis abbreviations plene scriptum punctuation diacritics metheg cantillation geresh gershayim inverted nun shekel sign numerals phonology biblical hebrew modern hebrew philippi s law law of attenuation grammar biblical modern verbal morphology semitic roots prefixes suffixes segolate waw consecutive academic revival academy study ulpan keyboard hebrew israeli literature names surnames unicode and html reference works gesenius hebrew grammar gesenius hebrew and chaldee lexicon to the old testament scriptures brown driver briggs strong s concordance hebrew and aramaic lexicon of the old testament v t e types of writing systems overview history of writing grapheme lists writing systems undeciphered inventors constructed languages by writing system by first written accounts types abjads numerals aramaic hatran arabic elifba egyptian hieroglyphs elymaic hebrew ashuri cursive rashi solitreo tifinagh mandaic manichaean nabataean ancient north arabian paleo hebrew pahlavi book inscriptional inscriptional parthian psalter pegon phoenician pitman shorthand proto sinaitic punic samaritan south arabian zabur musnad sogdian syriac ʾesṭrangēlā serṭā maḏnḥāyā teeline shorthand ugaritic abugidas brahmic northern bengali assamese bhaiksuki brahmi script devanagari dogri gujarati gupta gurmukhi kaithi kalinga khema khojki khudabadi laṇḍā lepcha mahajani marchen meitei modi multani nagari nandinagari nepalese scripts bhujimol golmol himmol kummol kvemmol kurukh pachumol newar ranjana tamyig tirhuta limbu litumol odia karani ʼphags pa sharada siddhaṃ soyombo sylheti nagri takri tibetan uchen umê tocharian zanabazar square southern ahom balinese batak baybayin bhattiprolu buda buhid chakma cham fakkham grantha goykanadi hanunoo javanese kadamba kannada karen kawi khmer khom thai kulitan lanna langdi lao leke lontara bilang bilang makasar malayalam old maldivian dhives akuru eveyla akuru mon burmese pallava pyu saurashtra shan sinhala sukhothai sundanese old sundanese tagbanwa tai le new tai lue tai noi tai tham tai viet lai tay tamil tamil brahmi tanchangya telugu thai tigalari ulu scripts incung lampung lembak ogan pasemah rejang serawai vatteluttu kolezhuthu malayanma others bharati boyd s syllabic shorthand canadian syllabics blackfoot déné syllabics dham fox i geʽez gunjala gondi japanese braille sarati jenticha kharosthi mandombe masaram gondi meroitic miao mwangwego pahawh hmong sorang sompeng tengwar thaana thomas natural shorthand warang citi rma alphabets linear adlam ariyaka armenian avestan pazend avoiuli bassa vah carian caucasian albanian cirth coelbren coorgi cox alphabet coptic cyrillic serbian early deseret duployan shorthand chinook eclectic shorthand elbasan enochian etruscan formosan fox ii franklin s phonetic fraser gabelsberger shorthand gadabuursi garay alphabet georgian asomtavruli nuskhuri mkhedruli veso bey glagolitic gothic gregg shorthand greek archaic greco iberian alphabet hangul hanifi hurûf ı munfasıla sunuwar kaddare kayah li klingon latin beneventan blackletter carolingian minuscule fraktur gaelic insular ipa kurrent merovingian sigla sütterlin tironian notes visigothic luo lycian lydian manchu medefaidrin mru mundari bani n ko ogham ol chiki old italic old permic orkhon yenisei old hungarian old uyghur mongolian evenki galik alphabet manchu oirat vagindra ol onal osage osmanya pau cin hau phrygian pisidian runic anglo saxon cipher dalecarlian elder futhark younger futhark gothic marcomannic medieval staveless shavian sidetic sorang sompeng sunuwar tifinagh todhri tolong siki vellara visible speech vithkuqi wancho warang citi yezidi zaghawa non linear braille flag semaphore maritime flags moon type new york point fingerspelling telegraph code ideograms adinkra aztec blissymbols dongba ersu shaba emoji isotype kaidā miꞌkmaw mixtec new epoch notation painting nsibidi anishinaabewibii iganan olmec siglas poveiras testerian yerkish zapotec logograms chinese family of scripts chinese characters simplified traditional oracle bone script bronze scripts seal script large small bird worm hanja kanji chữ nôm sawndip bowen chinese influenced jurchen khitan large script sui tangut cuneiform akkadian assyrian elamite hittite luwian sumerian other logosyllabic anatolian bagam cretan isthmian maya proto elamite tenevil wiigwaasabak yi classical logoconsonantal demotic hieratic hieroglyphs numerals hindu arabic abjad attic greek muisca roman other sitelen pona semi syllabaries full linear elamite celtiberian iberian northeastern southeastern khom dunging redundant espanca script pahawh hmong khitan small script southwest paleohispanic bopomofo quốc âm tân tự sign languages aslwrite signwriting si5s stokoe notation syllabaries afaka bamum bété byblos canadian aboriginal cherokee cypriot cypro minoan ditema tsa dinoko eskayan geba great lakes algonquian iban idu kana hiragana katakana man yōgana hentaigana sōgana jindai moji kikakui kpelle linear b linear elamite lisu loma nüshu nwagu aneke script old persian cuneiform sumerian vai woleai yi yugtun v t e braille braille cell 1829 braille international uniformity ascii braille unicode braille patterns braille scripts french ordered albanian cantonese catalan chinese mainland mandarin largely reassigned czech dutch 6 dot 8 dot english unified english esperanto french german ghanaian guarani hawaiian hungarian iñupiaq ipa irish italian latvian lithuanian luxembourgish extended to 8 dot maltese māori navajo nigerian philippine polish portuguese romanian samoan slovak south african spanish taiwanese mandarin largely reassigned turkish azerbaijani vietnamese welsh yugoslav zambian nordic family estonian faroese icelandic scandinavian danish finnish greenlandic northern sámi norwegian swedish russian lineage family i e cyrillic mediated scripts belarusian bulgarian kazakh kyrgyz mongolian russian tatar ukrainian egyptian lineage family i e arabic mediated scripts arabic persian urdu pakistan indian lineage family i e bharati braille devanagari hindi marathi nepali bengali bangla assamese gujarati kannada malayalam odia punjabi sinhala tamil telugu urdu india other scripts amharic armenian burmese dzongkha bhutanese georgian greek hebrew inuktitut reassigned vowels khmer thai and lao japanese vowels tibetan reordered algerian braille obsolete frequency based american braille obsolete independent chinese semi syllabaries cantonese mainland chinese mandarin taiwanese mandarin two cell chinese shuangpin japanese korean eight dot dutch luxembourgish kanji ...
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