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skeleton which although it lacks exact stratigraphic position has been dated to an estimated broad range from 153 30 000 ya whilst the niah cave child in east malaysia has been dated to 45 39 000 ya for the cranium from a recent field and lab program curnoe et al 2012 2 tianyuan cave just south of the zhoukoudian cave has fragmentary evidence of an amh crania and teeth which are dated to 40 000 ya with a possible mix of archaic and modern features the american and chinese team who excavated it have suggested it is evidence of interbreeding in china with resident archaic populations but suggest an african origin for the amh itself jurmain et al 2011 287 the above examples highlight problems in understanding the definition of amh both anatomically and behaviourally with the advent of dispersals from africa amh interacted with other hominids prominent of which are the neandertals in eurasia and the elusive denisovans in siberia krause et al 2010 hubin 2009 noonan 2010 zilhao 2006 genetic evidence is unravelling what it is to be an amh hawks et al 2007 and there is evidence to suggest that neandertals contributed up to 4 of non african modern human dna via gene flow green et al 2010 711 reich et al 2010 1057 roughly one third of neandertal mtdna genetic diversity dating from 70 000 to 38 000 ya is comparable to contemporary human populations briggs et al 2009 319 although noonan 2010 550 and herrera et al 2009 253 raise the flag of caution as the majority of neandertal remains were not collected with their regard to dna investigation whilst modern dna contamination despite the safeguards is still prevalent briggs et al 2009 321 postulate that low mtdna diversity throughout much of the neandertal lineage may indicate a low effective population size although it could be reflective of amh direct indirect influences as they spread from africa interbreeding or out competing for example herrera et al 2009 253 note that there are difficulties such as identifying haplotypes indicative of interbreeding nonetheless as zilhao et al 2010 1027 points out that a mid palaeolithic iberian neandertal sites shows distinct features associated with amh including symbolic behaviour with ochre and shells displaying evidence of body paint and organisation skills which that studies believes is the outcome of demographic pressure technology and social complexification within the neandertal species itself roebroeks et al 2012 2 figure 1 phylogenetic tree of complete mtdna rooted with chimpanzee and bonobo mtdna showing geographic origin of mtdna samples krause et al 2010 896 click to enlarge meanwhile krause et al 2010 896 provide evidence that the denisovans split before neandertal and amh at around 1 million ya whilst neandertals and h sapiens ancestors split around 690 000 to 550 000 ya jurmain et al 2011 270 pairwise nucleotide differences indicate that neandertals differ from modern humans at around 202 nucleotide positions whilst the denisovan individual differs at 385 positions krause et al 2010 895 which alongside the phylogenetic evidence figure 1 supports a deeper divergence of the denisovan hominin than between the closer related h sapiens and neandertal species there is the distinct possibility of admixture this is reinforced by the apparent coexistence of the surrounding area by neandertals amh and denisovans in the altai region at roughly the same time periods and by the fact that denisova populations contributed roughly 4 6 present day dna in amh melanesian populations this suggests they interacted with melanesian ancestors but probably not in the siberia region krause et al 2010 895 reich et al 2010 1053 the lack of complete remains and its physically limited location from this suspected new species at denisova cave limit our knowledge but tests are continuing if this hominin as hypothesised had a wide geographical range reich et al 2010 1059 the question must be asked why we haven t noticed it before interestingly abi rached et al 2011 94 highlight that the fact that as the amh eurasian populations mixed with archaic hominids adaptive introgression of vital immune system components human leukocytes antigen class 1 helped to provide a mechanism for rapid evolution the adapted introgression of the genes now represent more than half of the hla alleles in modern eurasians and were later introduced into african populations abi rached et al 2011 89 therefore the definition of amh must include evidence of interbreeding to some degree future genomic studies in other archaic hominins should provide more information relating to the relationships between species however it seems clear that gene flow was relatively common in the upper pleistocene reich et al 2010 1059 increased amh demographic growth and geographic spread dated from 80 000 ya to the present has led to rapid genetic evolutionary selective pressures on features including skin pigmentation adaptation to cold and diet amongst others hawks et al 2007 20756 some of the most dramatic have been associated with the uptake of agriculture during the neolithic period both in terms of our ability in coping with disease and changes from interaction via population density barnes et al 2011 848 this is partly the result of cultural and ecological reasons i e a biocultural pathway and hawks et al 2007 20756 20757 remark that in their study it was noted new adaptive alleles continued to reflect demographic growth that the neolithic and later periods would have experienced a rate of adaptive evolution 100 times higher than characterised most of human evolution two examples help highlight the effects of biocultural change in modern population coevolution of humans and cattle since the neolithic has resulted in distinct populations of modern humans becoming lactose persistence such as europeans whilst other populations such as african and asian adults are largely lactose intolerant jurmain et al 2011 313 this is through active selection of breeding cattle which inadvertently selected for the gene that produces lactose persistence in themselves jurmain et al 2011 313 this example shows the geographical distribution of lactose persistence is often related to a history of cultural dependency on fresh milk products on the other hand modern population pressures include the admixture of populations who have had the pressures of urbanisation agriculture and gene selection for disease loading such as tuberculosis who then interact with indigenous populations such as torres strait islanders and papua new guinea populations who are not predisposed to deal with tb because of their lack of long term cattle coevolution barnes et al 2011 the importance is recognising that there is great variation at an environmental genetic level in modern amh and this is highly likely to be the case during the long and concurrent evolution of amh jurmain et al 2011 in conclusion the definition of amh comes to thus either a strict definition of amh present at around 40 35 000 ya onwards with the full suite of the triad of anatomically modern skeletal elements modern behavioural cognitive functions and similar genetics to today s worldwide population tattersall schwartz 2008 or we can take the view that h sapiens evolved with a mosaic of features that they themselves appeared at different times during the evolution of amh jurmain et al 2011 pettitt 2005 it is this author s belief that the origin of h sapiens species lies at the omo kibish site in eastern africa as the earliest evidence so far and the definition of amh must be taken with accord of the fossil record jurmain et al 2011 throughout this paper a long chronology has been presented and discussed of h sapiens in the context of human evolution and consideration has been given to the relatively modern genetic changes in modern human populations hawks et al 2007 this view belies the complexity of defining amh especially as new hominins are found krause et al 2010 reich et al 2010 wong 2012 as the consideration of the context is paramount there is inherent variation in the record as evidenced between the distinct morphological variation between omo 1 and omo 2 fossils leading up to the palaeogenetic and modern genetic variation and morphological in populations from inside and outside africa briggs et al 2009 hawks et al 2007 harvati et al 2012 in comparison the origin of the homo genus is still in dispute wong 2012 24 and the chimpanzee fossil record is distinctly lacking wood 2005 69 70 only recently has snp genotyping revealed the extent of pan troglodytes ellioti as a genetically distinct species bowden et al 2012 1 the importance of this is that we should seek to place the well discussed h sapiens within a larger framework of where hominins both extant and extinct diverged interacted and evolved see discussion patterson et al 2006 1106 wakeley 2008 the definition of amh is therefore but one fragment of our long evolutionary history further sources a condensed scientific 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