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the design and development effort in 2007 though it originated as a re engineering of c d is now a very different language as it has developed it has drawn inspiration from other high level programming languages notably it has been influenced by java python ruby c and eiffel the d language reference describes it as follows d is a general purpose systems programming language with a c like syntax that compiles to native code it is statically typed and supports both automatic garbage collected and manual memory management d programs are structured as modules that can be compiled separately and linked with external libraries to create native libraries or executables 11 features edit d is not source compatible with c and c source code in general however any code that is legal in both c c and d should behave in the same way like c d has closures anonymous functions compile time function execution design by contract ranges built in container iteration concepts and type inference d s declaration statement and expression syntaxes also closely match those of c unlike c d also implements garbage collection first class arrays std array in c are technically not first class array slicing nested functions and lazy evaluation d uses java style single inheritance with interfaces and mixins rather than c style multiple inheritance d is a systems programming language like c and unlike application languages such as java and c d supports low level programming including inline assembler inline assembler allows programmers to enter machine specific assembly code within standard d code system programmers use this method to access the low level features of the processor that are needed to run programs that interface directly with the underlying hardware such as operating systems and device drivers low level programming is also used to write higher performance code than would be produced by a compiler d supports function overloading and operator overloading symbols functions variables classes can be declared in any order forward declarations are not needed in d text character strings are arrays of characters and arrays in d are bounds checked 12 d has first class types for complex and imaginary numbers 13 programming paradigms edit d supports five main programming paradigms concurrent actor model object oriented imperative functional metaprogramming imperative edit imperative programming in d is almost identical to that in c functions data statements declarations and expressions work just as they do in c and the c runtime library may be accessed directly however unlike c d s foreach loop construct allows looping over a collection d also allows nested functions which are functions that are declared inside another function and which may access the enclosing function s local variables import std stdio void main int multiplier 10 int scaled int x return x multiplier foreach i 0 10 writefln hello world d scaled d i scaled i object oriented edit object oriented programming in d is based on a single inheritance hierarchy with all classes derived from class object d does not support multiple inheritance instead it uses java style interfaces which are comparable to c s pure abstract classes and mixins which separate common functionality from the inheritance hierarchy d also allows the defining of static and final non virtual methods in interfaces interfaces and inheritance in d support covariant types for return types of overridden methods d supports type forwarding and optional custom dynamic dispatch classes and interfaces in d can contain invariants which are automatically checked before and after entry to public methods in accord with the design by contract methodology many aspects of classes and structs can be introspected automatically at compile time a form of reflective programming reflection using type traits and at runtime rtti typeinfo to facilitate generic code or automatic code generation usually using compile time techniques functional edit d supports functional programming features such as function literals closures recursively immutable objects and the use of higher order functions there are two syntaxes for anonymous functions including a multiple statement form and a shorthand single expression notation 14 int function int g g x return x x longhand g x x x shorthand there are two built in types for function literals function which is simply a pointer to a stack allocated function and delegate which also includes a pointer to the relevant stack frame the surrounding environment which contains the current local variables type inference may be used with an anonymous function in which case the compiler creates a delegate unless it can prove that an environment pointer is not necessary likewise to implement a closure the compiler places enclosed local variables on the heap only if necessary for example if a closure is returned by another function and exits that function s scope when using type inference the compiler will also add attributes such as pure and nothrow to a function s type if it can prove that they apply other functional features such as currying and common higher order functions such as map filter and reduce are available through the standard library modules std functional and std algorithm import std stdio std algorithm std range void main int a1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 int a2 6 7 8 9 must be immutable to allow access from inside a pure function immutable pivot 5 int mysum int a int b pure nothrow pure function ref to enclosing scope if b pivot return a b else return a passing a delegate closure auto result reduce mysum chain a1 a2 writeln result result result 15 passing a delegate literal result reduce a b b pivot a b a chain a1 a2 writeln result result result 15 alternatively the above function compositions can be expressed using uniform function call syntax ufcs for more natural left to right reading auto result a1 chain a2 reduce mysum writeln result result result a1 chain a2 reduce a b b pivot a b a writeln result result parallelism edit parallel programming concepts are implemented in the library and do not require extra support from the compiler however the d type system and compiler ensure that data sharing can be detected and managed transparently import std stdio writeln import std range iota import std parallelism parallel void main foreach i iota 11 parallel the body of the foreach loop is executed in parallel for each i writeln processing i iota 11 parallel is equivalent to std parallelism parallel iota 11 by using ufcs the same module also supports taskpool which can be used for dynamic creation of parallel tasks and for map filter reduce and fold style operations on ranges and arrays which is useful when combined with functional operations std algorithm map returns a lazily evaluated range rather than an array this way the elements are computed by each worker task in parallel automatically import std stdio writeln import std algorithm map import std range iota import std parallelism taskpool on intel i7 3930x and gdc 9 3 0 5140ms using std algorithm reduce 888ms using std parallelism taskpool reduce on amd threadripper 2950x and gdc 9 3 0 2864ms using std algorithm reduce 95ms using std parallelism taskpool reduce void main auto nums iota 1 0 1_000_000_000 0 auto x taskpool reduce a b 0 0 map 1 0 a a nums writeln sum x concurrency edit concurrency is fully implemented in the library and it does not require support from the compiler alternative implementations and methodologies of writing concurrent code are possible the use of d typing system does help ensure memory safety import std stdio std concurrency std variant void foo bool cont true while cont delegates are used to match the message type receive int msg writeln int received msg tid sender cont false sender send 1 variant v writeln huh variant matches any type void main auto tid spawn foo spawn a new thread running foo foreach i 0 10 tid send i send some integers tid send 1 0f send a float tid send hello send a string tid send thistid send a struct tid receive int x writeln main thread received message x metaprogramming edit metaprogramming is supported through templates compile time function execution tuples and string mixins the following examples demonstrate some of d s compile time features templates in d can be written in a more imperative style compared to the c functional style for templates this is a regular function that calculates the factorial of a number ulong factorial ulong n if n 2 return 1 else return n factorial n 1 here the use of static if d s compile time conditional construct is demonstrated to construct a template that performs the same calculation using code that is similar to that of the function above template factorial ulong n static if n 2 enum factorial 1 else enum factorial n factorial n 1 in the following two examples the template and function defined above are used to compute factorials the types of constants need not be specified explicitly as the compiler infers their types from the right hand sides of assignments enum factorial7 factorial 7 this is an example of compile time function execution ctfe ordinary functions may be used in constant compile time expressions provided they meet certain criteria enum factorial9 factorial 9 the std string format function performs printf like data formatting also at compile time through ctfe and the msg pragma displays the result at compile time import std string format pragma msg format 7 s fact_7 pragma msg format 9 s fact_9 string mixins combined with compile time function execution allow for the generation of d code using string operations at compile time this can be used to parse domain specific languages which will be compiled as part of the program hypothetical module which contains a function that parses foo source code and returns equivalent d code import footod void main mixin footod import example foo memory management edit memory is usually managed with garbage collection but specific objects may be finalized immediately when they go out of scope this is what the majority of programs and libraries written in d use explicit memory management is possible using the overloaded operator new by calling c s malloc and free directly or implementing custom allocator schemes such as stack allocation with fallback raii style allocation reference counting or shared reference counting garbage collection can be controlled programmers may add and exclude memory ranges from being observed by the collector can disable and enable the collector and force either a generational or full collection cycle 15 the language documentation provides examples of how to implement alternative memory management schemes for scenarios where garbage collection is not preferred 16 in functions struct instances are by default allocated on the stack while class instances by default allocated on the heap with only reference to the class instance being on the stack however this can be changed for classes for example using standard library template std typecons scoped or by using new for structs and assigning to a pointer instead of a value based variable 17 in functions static arrays of known size are allocated on the stack for dynamic arrays one can use the core stdc stdlib alloca function similar to alloca in c to allocate memory on the stack the returned pointer can be used recast into a typed dynamic array by means of a slice however resizing array including appending must be avoided and for obvious reasons they must not be returned from the function 17 a scope keyword can be used both to annotate parts of code but also variables and classes structs to indicate they should be destroyed destructor called immediately on scope exit whatever the memory is deallocated also depends on implementation and class vs struct differences 18 std experimental allocator contains modular and composable allocator templates to create custom allocators for specific use cases 19 safed edit safed 20 is the name given to the subset of d that can be guaranteed to be memory safe functions marked safe are checked at compile time to ensure that they do not use any features that could result in corruption of memory such as pointer arithmetic and unchecked casts any other functions called must also be marked as safe or trusted functions can be marked trusted for the cases where the compiler cannot distinguish between safe use of a feature that is disabled in safed and a potential case of memory corruption 21 scope lifetime safety edit initially under the banners of dip1000 22 and dip25 23 now part of the language specification 24 d provides protections against certain ill formed constructions involving the lifetimes of data the current mechanisms in place primarily deal with function parameters and stack memory however the language design roadmap includes plans to expand lifetime tracking within the d programming language drawing on concepts from the rust programming language 25 influenced by ideas from rust programming language lifetime safety of assignments edit within safe code the lifetime of an assignment involving a reference type is checked to ensure that the lifetime of the assignee is longer than that of the assigned for example safe void test int tmp 0 1 int rad 2 rad tmp if the order of the declarations of 1 and 2 is reversed this fails int bad 45 the lifetime of bad only extends to the scope in which it is defined rad bad this is valid rad bad the lifetime of rad is longer than bad hence this is not valid function parameter lifetime annotations within safe code edit when applied to function parameter which are either of pointer type or references the keywords return and scope constrain the lifetime and use of that parameter the language standard dictates the following behaviour 26 storage class behaviour and constraints to of a parameter with the storage class scope references in the parameter cannot be escaped ignored for parameters with no references return parameter may be returned or in case of void functions copied to the first parameter but otherwise does not escape from the function such copies are required not to outlive the argument s they were derived from ignored for parameters with no references an annotated example is given below safe int gp void thorin scope int void gloin int int balin return scope int p scope int q int r gp p error p escapes to global variable gp gp q error q escapes to global variable gp gp r ok thorin p ok p does not escape thorin thorin q ok thorin r ok gloin p error p escapes gloin gloin q error q escapes gloin gloin r ok that r escapes gloin return p ok return q error cannot return scope q return r ok interaction with other systems edit c s application binary interface abi is supported as well as all of c s fundamental and derived types enabling direct access to existing c code and libraries d bindings are available for many popular c libraries additionally c s standard library is part...
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