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direction opposite to what they wanted and objected to increased catholic influence both at court and as they saw it within the church after the first english civil war political power was held by various factions of puritans the trials and executions of william laud and then king charles were decisive moves shaping british history while in the short term puritan power was consolidated by the parliamentary armed forces and oliver cromwell in the same years the argument for theocracy failed to convince enough of the various groupings and there was no puritan religious settlement to match cromwell s gradual assumption of dictatorial powers the distinctive formulation of reformed theology in the westminster assembly would prove to be its lasting legacy in new england immigration of what were puritan family groups and congregations was at its peak for the middle years of king charles s reign fragmentation and political failure edit further information history of the puritans from 1649 the westminster assembly which saw disputes on church polity in england victorian history painting by john rogers herbert the puritan movement in england was riven over decades by emigration and inconsistent interpretations of scripture as well as some political differences that surfaced at that time the fifth monarchy men a radical millenarian wing of puritanism aided by strident popular clergy like vavasor powell agitated from the right wing of the movement even as sectarian groups like the ranters levellers and quakers pulled from the left 28 29 the fragmentation created a collapse of the centre and ultimately sealed a political failure while depositing an enduring spiritual legacy that would remain and grow in english speaking christianity 30 the westminster assembly was called in 1643 assembling clergy of the church of england the assembly was able to agree to the westminster confession of faith doctrinally a consistent reformed theological position the directory of public worship was made official in 1645 and the larger framework now called the westminster standards was adopted by the church of scotland in england the standards were contested by independents up to 1660 31 the westminster divines on the other hand were divided over questions of church polity and split into factions supporting a reformed episcopacy presbyterianism congregationalism and erastianism the membership of the assembly was strongly weighted towards the presbyterians but oliver cromwell was a puritan and an independent congregationalist separatist who imposed his doctrines upon them the church of england of the interregnum 1649 60 was run along presbyterian lines but never became a national presbyterian church such as existed in scotland england was not the theocratic state which leading puritans had called for as godly rule 32 great ejection and dissenters edit further information history of the puritans from 1649 at the time of the english restoration in 1660 the savoy conference was called to determine a new religious settlement for england and wales under the act of uniformity 1662 the church of england was restored to its pre civil war constitution with only minor changes and the puritans found themselves sidelined a traditional estimate of historian calamy is that around 2 400 puritan clergy left the church in the great ejection of 1662 33 at this point the term dissenter came to include puritan but more accurately described those clergy or lay who dissented from the 1662 book of common prayer 34 the dissenters divided themselves from all other christians in the church of england and established their own separatist congregations in the 1660s and 1670s an estimated 1 800 of the ejected clergy continued in some fashion as ministers of religion according to richard baxter 33 the government initially attempted to suppress these schismatic organisations by using the clarendon code there followed a period in which schemes of comprehension were proposed under which presbyterians could be brought back into the church of england but nothing resulted from them the whigs opposed the court religious policies and argued that the dissenters should be allowed to worship separately from the established church this position ultimately prevailed when the toleration act was passed in the wake of the glorious revolution in 1689 this permitted the licensing of dissenting ministers and the building of chapels the term nonconformist generally replaced the term dissenter from the middle of the 18th century puritans in north america edit further information history of the puritans in north america interior of the old ship church a puritan meetinghouse in hingham massachusetts puritans were calvinists so their churches were unadorned and plain some puritans left for new england particularly from 1629 to 1640 charles i s personal rule supporting the founding of the massachusetts bay colony and other settlements among the northern colonies the large scale puritan migration to new england ceased by 1641 with around 21 000 persons having moved across the atlantic this english speaking population in the united states was not descended from all of the original colonists since many of them returned to england shortly after arriving on the continent but it produced more than 16 million descendants 35 36 this so called great migration is not so named because of sheer numbers which were much less than the number of english citizens who immigrated to virginia and the caribbean during this time many as indentured servants 37 the rapid growth of the new england colonies around 700 000 by 1790 was almost entirely due to the high birth rate and lower death rate per year they had formed families more rapidly than did the southern colonies 38 death s head granary burying ground a typical example of early funerary art in puritan new england puritan hegemony lasted for at least a century that century can be broken down into three parts the generation of john cotton and richard mather 1630 1662 from the founding to the restoration years of virtual independence and nearly autonomous development the generation of increase mather 1662 1689 from the restoration and the halfway covenant to the glorious revolution years of struggle with the british crown and the generation of cotton mather 1689 1728 from the overthrow of edmund andros in which cotton mather played a part and the new charter mediated by increase mather to the death of cotton mather 39 puritan leaders were political thinkers and writers who considered the church government to be god s agency in social life 40 the puritans in the colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the bible themselves rather than have to rely upon the clergy for interpretation 41 42 43 44 in 1635 they established the boston latin school to educate their sons the first and oldest formal education institution in the english speaking new world they also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters and in other cases they taught their daughters at home how to read as a result puritans were among the most literate societies in the world by the time of the american revolution there were 40 newspapers in the united states at a time when there were only two cities new york and philadelphia with as many as 20 000 people in them 44 45 46 47 the puritans also set up a college now harvard university only six years after arriving in boston 44 48 beliefs edit calvinism edit part of a series on reformed christianity reformation wall in geneva featuring prominent reformed theologians william farel john calvin theodore beza and john knox background christianity reformation protestantism theology theology of john calvin covenant theology republication of the covenant of works baptist covenant theology logical order of god s decrees baptism lord s supper regulative principle predestination scholasticism texts list of texts geneva bible king james version confessions helvetic confessions french confession three forms of unity belgic confession heidelberg catechism canons of dort scots confession westminster standards westminster confession of faith westminster shorter catechism westminster larger catechism barmen declaration institutes of the christian religion systematic theology metrical psalter theologians list of theologians huldrych zwingli johannes oecolampadius wolfgang capito martin bucer peter martyr vermigli heinrich bullinger john calvin john knox zacharias ursinus theodore beza thomas cartwright william perkins franciscus gomarus william twisse moses amyraut samuel rutherford gisbertus voetius john owen francis turretin richard baxter jonathan edwards friedrich schleiermacher philip schaff john nevin charles hodge abraham kuyper herman bavinck b b warfield john machen geerhardus vos karl barth h richard niebuhr reinhold niebuhr cornelius van til t f torrance jürgen moltmann j i packer donald g bloesch michael horton denominations continental reformed presbyterian calvinistic methodism congregational particular baptist anglican movements afrikaners amyraldians christian reconstructionism federal vision huguenots marrow brethren mercersburg theology neonomians neo calvinism new england theology new calvinism pietistic calvinism pilgrims princeton theology puritans reformed scholasticism organisations world communion of reformed churches world reformed fellowship international conference of reformed churches north american presbyterian and reformed council christianity protestantism reformed christianity portal v t e main article calvinism puritanism broadly refers to a diverse religious reform movement in britain that was committed to the continental reformed tradition 49 while puritans did not agree upon all doctrinal points most of them shared similar doctrines about the nature of god human sinfulness and the relationship between god and mankind they believed that all of their beliefs should be based upon the bible which they considered to be divinely inspired 50 the concept of covenant was extremely important to puritans and covenant theology was central to their beliefs with roots in the writings of the reformed theologians john calvin and heinrich bullinger covenant theology was further developed by the puritan theologians dudley fenner william perkins john preston richard sibbes william ames and most fully by ames s dutch student johannes cocceius 51 covenant theology asserts that when god created adam and eve he promised them eternal life in return for perfect obedience and this promise was termed the covenant of works after the fall of man human nature was corrupted by original sin and therefore unable to fulfill the covenant of works since each person inevitably violated god s law as expressed in the ten commandments as sinners every person deserved damnation 52 puritans shared with other calvinists a belief in double predestination that some people the elect were destined by god to receive grace and salvation while others were destined for hell 53 no one however could merit salvation according to covenant theology jesus s sacrifice on the cross made possible the covenant of grace by which people who are selected by god could be saved puritans believed in unconditional election and irresistible grace which means that god s grace was given freely without condition to the elect and could not be refused 54 conversion edit covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal it held that god s predestination was not impersonal and mechanical but was a covenant of grace that one entered into by faith therefore being a christian could never be reduced to simple intellectual acknowledgment of the truth of christianity puritans agreed that the effectual call of each elect saint of god would always come as an individuated personal encounter with god s promises 55 the process by which the elect are brought from spiritual death to spiritual life regeneration was described as conversion 54 early on puritans did not consider a specific conversion experience normative or necessary but many gained assurance of salvation from such experiences over time however puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based upon their own experiences as well as those of their parishioners eventually puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one s election 56 the puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases it began with a preparatory phase that was designed to produce contrition for sin via introspection bible study and listening to preaching this was followed by humiliation when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness 54 it was after reaching this point the realization that salvation was possible only because of divine mercy that the person would experience justification when the righteousness of jesus is imputed to the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated for some puritans this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as being born again 57 confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection the historian perry miller wrote that the puritans liberated men from the treadmill of indulgences and penances but cast them on the iron couch of introspection 58 it was expected that conversion would be followed by sanctification which is described as the progressive growth in the saint s ability to better perceive and seek god s will and thus to lead a holy life 57 some puritans attempted to find assurance of their faith via keeping detailed records of their behavior and looking for the evidence of salvation in their lives puritan clergy wrote many spiritual guides to help their parishioners pursue personal piety and sanctification these included arthur dent s the plain man s pathway to heaven 1601 richard rogers s seven treatises 1603 henry scudder s christian s daily walk 1627 and richard sibbes s the bruised reed and smoking flax 1630 59 too much emphasis upon one s good works could be criticized for being too close to arminianism and too much emphasis upon subjective religious experience could be criticized as antinomianism many puritans relied upon both personal religious experience and self examination to assess their spiritual condition 59 puritanism s experiential piety would be inherited by the evangelical protestants of the 1700s 58 while evangelical doctrines about conversion were heavily influenced by puritan theology the puritans believed that assurance of one s salvation was rare late in life and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all people who were truly converted 60 worship and sacraments edit further information reformed baptismal theology while most puritans were members of 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