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byproducts, economy, breeder, initially, named, specifically, historically, called, much, rarer, sequence, steps, culminating, eventually, reaches, equilibrium, though, takes, 245, once, stabilized, reached, steadily, decrease, ratios, remain, 234, 237, 152, proceeding, refereed, order, ground, state, uncertain, values, neighboring, tnn, indicates, weak, assignment, arguments, nearly, italics, modes, isomeric, transition, tms, concise, parentheses, after, corresponding, digits, excited, header, footer, 02591, 138, 02214, 01678, 136, 01316, 135, 400, 1514, 216m, 00806, 142, 004662, 1420, 214m, 9998035, 260, 1331, 213m, 1964, 9965608, 131, 1335, 212m, 9918959, 130, 159, 2011, 1719, 211m, 1628, 9887353, 129, 210m2, 1194, 210m1, 9841884, 128, radiolead, radio, 1940, 9810900, 127, 4895, 208m, 0338, 9775, 524, 9766520, 8834, 207m2, 806, 1633, 356, 207m1, 0035, 2351, 221, 9758968, 1971, 4027, 206m2, 1953, 2200, 206m1, 0190, 8673, 241, 9744652, 3195, 205m3, 1013, 205m2, 1976, 329, 205m1, 9744817, 8349, 204m4, 1978, 2264, 204m3, 1947, 2185, 204m2, 265, 204m1, 0000, 0158, 014, 1932, 9730435, 1988, 2970, 203m3, 480, 2949, 203m2, 825, 203m1, 924, 1942, 9733906, 121, 1987, 5300, 202m3, 4140, 202m2, 2169, 202m1, 9721516, 508, 2953, 201m2, 1952, 629, 201m1, 972870, 3005, 200m2, 456, 2183, 200m1, 971819, 2563, 199m2, 429, 199m1, 9729126, 2821, 198m3, 2231, 198m2, 2141, 198m1, 9720155, 1914, 197m2, 319, 197m1, 9734347, 270, 2694, 196m2, 140, 1797, 196m1, 9727876, 2901, 195m3, 1759, 195m2, 195m1, 9745162, 2933, 194m2, 370, 2628, 194m1, 974012, 1991, 2707, 193m2, 193m1, 976136, 756, 2001, 2743, 192m3, 1979, 2625, 192m2, 166, 2581, 192m1, 0059, 9757896, 2659, 191m2, 191m1, 9782165, 2658, 190m3, 2665, 190m2, 150, 2614, 190m1, 978082, 2005, 2475, 189m2, 2009, 189m1, 980844, 440, 4783, 188m3, 2709, 188m2, 800, 2577, 188m1, 980879, 307, 187m2, 187m1, 9839108, 984239, 185m, 987610, 988136, 415, 183m, 991863, 992674, 996661, 1996, 997916, 175, 002, 174, 250, 003836, range, normal, 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ble bold symbol as daughter daughter product is stable spin value indicates spin with weak assignment arguments 1 2 values marked are not purely derived from experimental data but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides tnn 1 2 order of ground state and isomer is uncertain only published in a conference proceeding and not a refereed journal 1 2 3 used in lead lead dating believed to undergo α decay to 200 hg with a half life over 1 4 10 20 years the theoretical lifetime is around 10 35 37 years 10 final decay product of 4n 2 decay chain the radium or uranium series believed to undergo α decay to 202 hg with a half life over 2 5 10 21 years the theoretical lifetime is 10 65 68 years 10 final decay product of 4n 3 decay chain the actinium series believed to undergo α decay to 203 hg with a half life over 1 9 10 21 years the theoretical lifetime is 10 152 189 years 10 heaviest observationally stable nuclide final decay product of 4n decay chain the thorium series believed to undergo α decay to 204 hg with a half life over 2 6 10 21 years the theoretical lifetime is 10 124 132 years 10 1 2 intermediate decay product of 237 np 1 2 intermediate decay product of 238 u intermediate decay product of 235 u intermediate decay product of 232 th lead 206 edit see also decay chain 206 pb is the final step in the decay chain of 238 u the radium series or uranium series in a closed system over time a given mass of 238 u will decay in a sequence of steps culminating in 206 pb the production of intermediate products eventually reaches an equilibrium though this takes a long time as the half life of 234 u is 245 500 years once this stabilized system is reached the ratio of 238 u to 206 pb will steadily decrease while the ratios of the other intermediate products to each other remain constant like most radioisotopes found in the radium series 206 pb was initially named as a variation of radium specifically radium g it is the decay product of both 210 po historically called radium f by alpha decay and the much rarer 206 tl radium e ii by beta decay lead 206 has been proposed for use in fast breeder nuclear fission reactor coolant over the use of natural lead mixture which also includes other stable lead isotopes as a mechanism to improve neutron economy and greatly suppress unwanted production of highly radioactive byproducts 13 lead 204 207 and 208 edit 204 pb is entirely primordial and is thus useful for estimating the fraction of the other lead isotopes in a given sample that are also primordial since the relative fractions of the various primordial lead isotopes is constant everywhere 14 any excess lead 206 207 and 208 is thus assumed to be radiogenic in origin 14 allowing various uranium and thorium dating schemes to be used to estimate the age of rocks time since their formation based on the relative abundance of lead 204 to other isotopes 207 pb is the end of the actinium series from 235 u 208 pb is the end of the thorium series from 232 th while it only makes up approximately half of the composition of lead in most places on earth it can be found naturally enriched up to around 90 in thorium ores 15 208 pb is the heaviest known stable nuclide and also the heaviest known doubly magic nucleus as z 82 and n 126 correspond to closed nuclear shells 16 as a consequence of this particularly stable configuration its neutron capture cross section is very low even lower than that of deuterium in the thermal spectrum making it of interest for lead cooled fast reactors in 2025 a published study suggested that the nucleus of 208 pb is not perfectly spherical as previously believed but rather is a prolate spheroid more commonly described as the shape of a rugby ball 17 lead 210 edit lead 210 210 pb is a radiogenic isotope of lead found in the decay chain of uranium 238 it is a beta emitter with a half life of 22 20 years in addition to dating recent sediments 210 pb is widely applied for studying soil erosion and sedimentation dynamics in agricultural and natural environments the unsupported or excess component 210 pb ex derived from atmospheric fallout of radon 222 decay products accumulates in surface soils and decays with a half life of 22 3 years its depth dependent activity profile enables reconstruction of soil redistribution over the past century because 210 pb deposition is continuous and globally widespread the method provides a long term perspective that complements the medium term records obtained from anthropogenic radionuclides such as 137 cs it has been used to quantify erosion and deposition rates assess land degradation and evaluate soil conservation practices offering valuable data for geomorphic and environmental research 18 the radiation emitted by lead 210 can cause issues for some particle physics experiments which has resulted in the use of ancient roman lead in such applications where the lead 210 has had time to decay to far lower levels 19 lead 212 edit lead 212 212 pb is a radioactive isotope of lead that has gained significant attention in nuclear medicine particularly in targeted alpha therapy tat 20 this isotope is part of the thorium decay series and serves as an important intermediate in various radioactive decay chains 21 212 pb is produced through the decay of radon 220 220 rn an intermediate product of thorium 228 228 th decay 20 it undergoes radioactive decay through beta emission to form bismuth 212 212 bi which further decays to emit alpha particles 22 this decay chain is particularly important in medical applications as it is an in vivo generator system of alpha particles that can be utilized for therapeutic purposes particularly tat by delivering potent localized radiation to cancer cells the isotope is part of the thorium decay series which begins with natural thorium 232 its beta decay 10 627 hours results in the formation of bismuth 212 212 bi which then emits alpha particles 6 1 mev crucial for the effectiveness of tat in cancer treatment 23 while in aqueous solutions free pb 2 tends to hydrolyze under physiological ph conditions to form species like pb oh which can impact its biodistribution if not properly chelated 24 chelator modified complexes have demonstrated high stability in saline and serum environments for extended periods e g 24 72 hours which is critical for therapeutic applications 25 lead 212 can be synthesized through several methods with generator based production utilizing the decay of 228 th being the most common this includes direct extraction from 228 th 224 ra 212 pb generators and 220 rn based generation each of these methods has its own advantages and complexities these various production routes cater to different industrial needs and regulatory considerations in the field of radioisotope production 23 see also edit daughter products other than lead isotopes of bismuth isotopes of thallium isotopes of mercury references edit 1 2 3 4 5 kondev f g wang m huang w j naimi s audi g 2021 the nubase2020 evaluation of nuclear properties pdf chinese physics c 45 3 030001 doi 10 1088 1674 1137 abddae 1 2 standard atomic weights lead ciaaw 2020 prohaska thomas irrgeher johanna benefield jacqueline böhlke john k chesson lesley a coplen tyler b ding tiping dunn philip j h gröning manfred holden norman e meijer harro a j 2022 05 04 standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 iupac technical report pure and applied chemistry doi 10 1515 pac 2019 0603 issn 1365 3075 jeter hewitt w march 2000 determining the ages of recent sediments using measurements of trace radioactivity pdf terra et aqua 78 21 28 archived from the original pdf on march 4 2016 retrieved october 23 2019 blank b regan p h 2000 magic and doubly magic nuclei nuclear physics news 10 4 20 27 doi 10 1080 10506890109411553 s2cid 121966707 fiorini 2010 pp 7 8 sfn error no target citereffiorini2010 help wang meng huang w j kondev f g audi g naimi s 2021 the ame 2020 atomic mass evaluation ii tables graphs and references chinese physics c 45 3 030003 doi 10 1088 1674 1137 abddaf frib nuclear data group discovery of nuclides project isotope database doi 10 11578 frib 2279152 frib nuclear data group discovery of nuclides project isomer database doi 10 11578 frib 2572219 1 2 3 4 beeman j w et al 2013 new experimental limits on the alpha decays of lead isotopes european physical journal a 49 4 50 arxiv 1212 2422 bibcode 2013epja 49 50b doi 10 1140 epja i2013 13050 7 s2cid 254111888 1 2 3 4 standard atomic weights lead ciaaw 2020 kuhn w 1929 lxviii scattering of thorium c γ radiation by radium g and ordinary lead the london edinburgh and dublin philosophical magazine and journal of science 8 52 628 doi 10 1080 14786441108564923 khorasanov g l ivanov a p blokhin a i 2002 polonium issue in fast reactor lead coolants and one of the ways of its solution 10th international conference on nuclear engineering pp 711 717 doi 10 1115 icone10 22330 1 2 woods g d november 2014 lead isotope analysis removal of 204hg isobaric interference from 204pb using icp qqq in ms ms mode pdf report stockport uk agilent technologies a yu smirnov v d borisevich a sulaberidze july 2012 evaluation of specific cost of obtainment of lead 208 isotope by gas centrifuges using various raw materials theoretical foundations of chemical engineering 46 4 373 378 doi 10 1134 s0040579512040161 s2cid 98821122 blank b regan p h 2000 magic and doubly magic nuclei nuclear physics news 10 4 20 27 doi 10 1080 10506890109411553 s2cid 121966707 henderson j heery j rocchini m siciliano m sensharma n ayangeakaa a d janssens r v f kowalewski t m abhishek stevenson p d yüksel e brown b a rodriguez t r robledo l m wu c y 2025 02 14 deformation and collectivity in doubly magic pb208 physical review letters 134 6 062502 doi 10 1103 physrevlett 134 062502 guidelines for using fallout radionuclides to assess erosion and effectiveness of soil conservation strategies iaea tecdoc series no 1741 vienna international atomic energy agency 2014 isbn 978 92 0 105414 2 moskowitz clara 18 december 2013 ancient roman metal used for physics experiments ignites science feud scientific american springer nature retrieved 8 december 2025 1 2 makvandi mehran dupis edouard engle jonathan w nortier f meiring fassbender michael e simon sam birnbaum eva r atcher robert w john kevin d rixe olivier norenberg jeffrey p 2018 02 08 alpha emitters and targeted alpha therapy in oncology from basic science to clinical investigations targeted oncology 13 2 189 203 doi 10 1007 s11523 018 0550 9 issn 1776 2596 osti 1459839 pmid 29423595 kokov k v egorova b v german m n klabukov i d krasheninnikov m e larkin kondrov a a makoveeva k a ovchinnikov m v sidorova m v chuvilin d y 2022 212pb production approaches and targeted therapy applications pharmaceutics 14 1 189 bibcode 2022phmcs 14 189k doi 10 3390 pharmaceutics14010189 issn 1999 4923 pmc 8777968 pmid 35057083 zimmermann richard february 2024 is 212 pb really happening the post 177 lu 225 ac blockbuster journal of nuclear medicine 65 2 176 177 doi 10 2967 jnumed 123 266774 issn 0161 5505 pmid 38176723 1 2 kokov konstantin v egorova bayirta v german marina n klabukov ilya d krasheninnikov michael e larkin kondrov antonius a makoveeva kseniya a ovchinnikov michael v sidorova maria v chuvilin dmitry y 2022 01 13 212pb production approaches and targeted therapy applications pharmaceutics 14 1 189 bibcode 2022phmcs 14 189k doi 10 3390 pharmaceutics14010189 issn 1999 4923 pmc 8777968 pmid 35057083 bauer david carter lukas m atmane mohamed i de gregorio roberto michel alexa kaminsky spencer monette sebastien li mengshi schultz michael k lewis jason s january 2024 212 pb pretargeted theranostics for pancreatic cancer journal of nuclear medicine 65 1 109 116 doi 10 2967 jnumed 123 266388 issn 0161 5505 pmc 10755526 pmid 37945380 li mengshi baumhover nicholas j liu dijie cagle brianna s boschetti frédéric paulin guillaume lee dongyoul dai zhiming obot ephraim r marks brenna m okeil ibrahim sagastume edwin a gabr moustafa pigge f christopher johnson frances l 2023 01 26 preclinical evaluation of a lead specific chelator psc conjugated to radiopeptides for 203pb and 212pb based theranostics pharmaceutics 15 2 414 doi 10 3390 pharmaceutics15020414 issn 1999 4923 pmc 9966725 pmid 36839736 v t e isotopes of the chemical elements group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 period hydrogen and alkali metals alkaline earth metals pnicto gens chal co gens halo gens noble gases isotopes list h 1 isotopes list he 2 isotopes list li 3 isotopes list be 4 isotopes list b 5 isotopes list c 6 isotopes list n 7 isotopes list o 8 isotopes list f 9 isotopes list ne 10 isotopes list na 11 isotopes list mg 12 isotopes list al 13 isotopes list si 14 isotopes list p 15 isotopes list s 16 isotopes list cl 17 isotopes list ar 18 isotopes list k 19 isotopes list ca 20 isotopes list sc 21 isotopes list ti 22 isotopes list v 23 isotopes list cr 24 isotopes list mn 25 isotopes list fe 26 isotopes list co 27 isotopes list ni 28 isotopes list cu 29 isotopes list zn 30 isotopes list ga 31 isotopes list ge 32 isotopes list as 33 isotopes list se 34 isotopes list br 35 isotopes list kr 36 isotopes list rb 37 isotopes list sr 38 isotopes list y 39 isotopes list zr 40 isotopes list nb 41 isotopes list mo 42 isotopes list tc 43 isotopes list ru 44 isotopes list rh 45 isotopes list pd 46 isotopes list ag 47 isotopes list cd 48 isotopes list in 49 isotopes list sn 50 isotopes list sb 51 isotopes list te 52 isotopes list i 53 isotopes list xe 54 isotopes list cs 55 isotopes list ba 56 isotopes list lu 71 isotopes list hf 72 isotopes list ta 73 isotopes list w 74 isotopes list re 75 isotopes list os 76 isotopes list ir 77 isotopes list pt 78 isotopes list au 79 isotopes list hg 80 isotopes list tl 81 isotopes list pb 82 isotopes list bi 83 isotopes list po 84 isotopes list at 85 isotopes list rn 86 isotopes list fr 87 isotopes list ra 88 isotopes list lr 103 isotopes list rf 104 isotopes list db 105 isotopes list sg 106 isotopes list bh 107 isotopes list hs 108 isotopes list mt 109 isotopes list ds 110 isotopes list rg 111 isotopes list cn 112 isotopes list nh 113 isotopes list fl 114 isotopes list mc 115 isotopes list lv 116 isotopes list ts 117 isotopes list og 118 isotopes list uue 119 isotopes list ubn 120 isotopes list la 57 isotopes list ce 58 isotopes list pr 59 isotopes list nd 60 isotopes list pm 61 isotopes list sm 62 isotopes list eu 63 isotopes list gd 64 isotopes list tb 65 isotopes list dy 66 isotopes list ho 67 isotopes list er 68 isotopes list tm 69 isotopes list yb 70 isotopes list ac 89 isotopes list th 90 isotopes list pa 91 isotopes list u 92 isotopes list np 93 isotopes list pu 94 isotopes list am 95 isotopes list cm 96 isotopes list bk 97 isotopes list cf 98 isotopes list es 99 isotopes list fm 100 isotopes list md 101 isotopes list no 102 table of nuclides categories isotopes tables of nuclides metastable isotopes isotopes by element authority control 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