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and a national marine park and as such could be labelled multiple use 32 seasonal and temporary management activities most critically fishing are restricted seasonally or temporarily e g to protect spawning nursing grounds or to let a rapidly reducing species recover multiple use mpas these are the most common and arguably the most effective these areas employ two or more protections the most important sections get the highest protection such as a no take zone and are surrounded with areas of lesser protections multiple use mpas can make use of very diverse fisheries regulations to balance fisheries extraction with nature protection 33 community involvement and related approaches community managed mpas empower local communities to operate partially or completely independent of the governmental jurisdictions they occupy empowering communities to manage resources can lower conflict levels and enlist the support of diverse groups that rely on the resource such as subsistence and commercial fishers scientists recreation tourism businesses youths and others mistrust between fishermen and regulating authorities is of central importance there and needs to be addressed recent evidence from regions like scandinavia spain portugal or canada reveals success stories based on the tested cooperation between marine scientists and fishermen in jointly managing coastal marine reserves 34 marine protected area networks edit main article marine protected area network marine protected area networks or mpa networks have been defined as a group of mpas that interact with one another ecologically and or socially form a network 28 these networks are intended to connect individuals and mpas and promote education and cooperation among various administrations and user groups mpa networks are from the perspective of resource users intended to address both environmental and socio economic needs complementary ecological and social goals and designs need greater research and policy support 28 filipino communities connect with one another to share information about mpas creating a larger network through the social communities support 35 emerging or established mpa networks can be found in australia belize the red sea gulf of aden and mexico 28 future approaches edit to be truly representative of the ocean and its range of marine resources marine conservation parks should encompass the great variety of ocean geological and geographical terrains as these in turn influence the biosphere around them citation needed as time progresses it would be strategically advantageous to develop parks that include oceanic features such as ocean ridges ocean trenches island arc systems ocean seamounts ocean plateaus and abyssal plains which occupy half the earth s surface another factor that will influence the development of marine conservation areas is ownership who owns the world s oceans 36 approximately 64 of the world s oceans are international waters and subject to regulations such as the law of the sea and the governance of un bodies such as the international seabed authority citation needed the remaining 36 of the ocean is under the governance of individual countries within their exclusive economic zones eezs citation needed some individual national eez s cover very large areas such as france and usa 11 million km 2 and australia russia uk and indonesia 6 million km 2 some states have very small land areas but extremely large eez s such as kiribati the federated states of micronesia marshall islands and cook islands who have individual eez areas of between 1 9 and 3 5 million km 2 the national eez s are the ones where governance is easier and agreements to create marine parks are within national jurisdictions such as is the case with marae moana and the cook islands citation needed one alternative to imposing mpas on an indigenous population is through the use of indigenous protected areas such as those in australia international efforts edit map showing the share of marine territorial waters protected by country 2021 the 17th international union for conservation of nature iucn general assembly in san jose california the 19th iucn assembly and the fourth world parks congress all proposed to centralise the establishment of protected areas the world summit on sustainable development in 2002 called for the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information including representative networks by 2012 37 the evian agreement signed by g8 nations in 2003 agreed to these terms the durban action plan developed in 2003 called for regional action and targets to establish a network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional environmental protocols it recommended establishing protected areas for 20 to 30 of the world s oceans by the goal date of 2012 the convention on biological diversity considered these recommendations and recommended requiring countries to set up marine parks controlled by a central organization before merging them the united nations framework convention on climate change agreed to the terms laid out by the convention and in 2004 its member nations committed to the following targets 38 by 2006 complete an area system gap analysis at national and regional levels by 2008 address the less represented marine ecosystems accounting for those beyond national jurisdiction in accordance by 2009 designate the protected areas identified through the gap analysis by 2012 complete the establishment of a comprehensive and ecologically representative network bunaken national park indonesia is officially listed as both a marine reserve and a national marine park 39 the establishment by 2010 of terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive effectively managed and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively inter alia through a global network contribute to achieving the three objectives of the convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current late of biodiversity loss at the global regional national and sub national levels and contribute to poverty reduction and the pursuit of sustainable development 40 global goals edit the un later endorsed another decision decision vii 15 in 2006 effective conservation of 10 of each of the world s ecological regions by 2010 united nations framework convention on climate change decision vii 15 41 the 10 conservation goal is also found in sustainable development goal 14 which is part of the convention on biological diversity and which sets this 10 goal to a later date 2020 in 2017 the un held the united nations ocean conference aiming to find ways and urge for the implementation of sustainable development goal 14 in that 2017 conference it was clear that just between 3 6 and 5 7 of the world s oceans were protected meaning another 6 4 to 4 3 of the world s oceans needed to be protected within 3 years 42 43 the 10 protection goal is described as a baby step as 30 is the real amount of ocean protection scientists agree on that should be implemented 42 global treaties edit united nations convention on the law of the sea edit see also united nations convention on the law of the sea the antarctic treaty system edit on 7 april 1982 the convention on the conservation of antarctic marine living resources camlr convention came into force after discussions began in 1975 between parties of the then current antarctic treaty to limit large scale exploitation of krill by commercial fisheries the convention bound contracting nations to abide by previously agreed upon antarctic territorial claims and peaceful use of the region while protecting ecosystem integrity south of the antarctic convergence and 60 s latitude in so doing it also established a commission of the original signatories and acceding parties called the commission for the conservation of antarctic marine living resources ccamlr to advance these aims through protection scientific study and rational use such as harvesting of those marine resources though separate the antarctic treaty and ccamlr make up part the broader system of international agreements called the antarctic treaty system since 1982 the ccamlr meets annually to implement binding conservations measures like the creation of protected areas at the suggestion of the convention s scientific committee in 2009 the ccamlr created the first high seas mpa entirely within international waters over the southern shelf of the south orkney islands this area encompasses 94 000 square kilometres 36 000 sq mi and all fishing activity including transshipment and dumping or discharge of waste is prohibited with the exception of scientific research endeavors 44 on 28 october 2016 the ccamlr composed of 24 member countries and the european union at the time agreed to establish the world s largest marine park encompassing 1 55 million km 2 600 000 sq mi in the ross sea after several years of failed negotiations establishment of the ross sea mpa required unanimity of the commission members and enforcement will begin in december 2017 however due to a sunset provision inserted into the proposal the new marine park will only be in force for 35 years 45 national targets edit many countries have established national targets accompanied by action plans and implementations the un council identified the need for countries to collaborate with each other to establish effective regional conservation plans some national targets are listed in the table below 46 country plan of action american samoa 20 of reefs to be protected by 2010 australia south australia 19 marine protected areas by 2010 bahamas 20 of the marine ecosystem protected for fishery replenishment by 2010 20 of coastal and marine habitats by 2015 belize 20 of bioregions 30 of coral reefs 60 of turtle nesting sites 30 of manatee distribution 60 of american crocodile nesting 80 of breeding areas canada 25 of the eez to be marine conservation or protected areas by 2025 and 30 by 2030 47 chile 29 of marine areas by 2017 48 cuba 22 of land habitat including 15 of the insular shelf 25 of coral reefs 25 of wetlands dominican republic 20 of marine and coastal by 2020 micronesia 30 of shoreline ecosystems by 2020 fiji 30 of reefs by 2015 30 of water managed by marine protected areas by 2020 germany 38 of water managed by the marine protected network no set date grenada 25 of nearby marine resources by 2020 guam 30 of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020 indonesia 100 000 km 2 by 2010 200 000 km 2 by 2020 republic of ireland 30 of marine areas by 2030 in the irish government s programme for government of 2020 aligned with the eu biodiversity strategy for 2030 and kunming montreal global biodiversity framework 49 50 isle of man 10 of manx waters as effectively managed ecologically representative and well connected protected areas and other effective area based conservation measures by 2020 as of june 2016 approximately 3 of manx waters were protected as a marine nature reserve with additional areas subject to seasonal or temporary protection 51 jamaica 20 of marine habitats by 2020 madagascar 100 000 km 2 by 2012 marshall islands 30 of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020 new zealand 20 of marine environment by 2010 north mariana islands 30 of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020 palau 30 of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020 peru marine protected area system established by 2015 philippines 10 fully protected by 2020 senegal creation of mpa network no set date south africa 10 of exclusive economic zone by 2020 st vincent and the grenadines 20 of marine areas by 2020 tanzania 10 of marine area by 2010 20 by 2020 united kingdom establish an ecologically coherent network of marine protected areas by 2012 united states california 29 mpas covering 18 of state marine area with 243 square kilometres 94 sq mi at maximum protection the prevalent practice of area based targets was criticized in 2019 by a group of environmental scientists because politicians tended to protect parts of the oceans where little fishing happened to meet the goals the lack of fishing in these areas made them easy to protect but it also had little positive impact 52 regional and national efforts edit further information list of marine protected areas the marine protected area network is still in its infancy as of october 2010 approximately 6 800 mpas had been established covering 1 17 of global ocean area protected areas covered 2 86 of exclusive economic zones eezs 53 mpas covered 6 3 of territorial seas 54 many prohibit the use of harmful fishing techniques yet only 0 01 of the ocean s area is designated as a no take zone 55 this coverage is far below the projected goal of 20 30 56 57 those targets have been questioned mainly due to the cost of managing protected areas and the conflict that protections have generated with human demand for marine goods and services 58 59 africa edit south africa edit this section is an excerpt from marine protected areas of south africa edit marine protected areas of south africa 60 61 the marine protected areas of south africa are in an area of coastline or ocean within the exclusive economic zone eez of the republic of south africa that is protected in terms of specific legislation for the benefit of the environment and the people who live in and use it 62 an mpa is a place where marine life can thrive under less pressure than unprotected areas they are like underwater parks and this healthy environment can benefit neighbouring areas 63 64 there are a total of 42 marine protected areas in the south african eez after consolidation with a total area of 15 5 of its exclusive economic zone eez the target was to have 10 of the oceanic waters protected by 2020 all but one of the mpas are in the exclusive economic zone off continental south africa and one is off the prince edward islands in the southern ocean without the large prince edward islands mpa south africa has 41 mpas covering 5 4 of its continental eez this achieves united nations sustainable development goal 14 5 for conservation of marine and coastal areas and the convention on biological diversity cbd strategic plan for biodiversity 2011 2020 aichi target 11 65 66 people can take part in a wide range of non consumptive activities in all of south africa s mpas and some parts of some mpas are zoned for limited consumptive activities 64 some of these activities require a permit which is a form of taxation greater caribbean edit the caribbean region the unep defined region also includes the gulf of mexico this region is encompassed by the mesoamerican barrier reef system proposal and the caribbean challenge the gulf of mexico region in 3d is encompassed clarification needed by the islands in the stream proposal the greater caribbean subdivision encompasses an area of about 5 700 000 square kilometres 2 200 000 sq mi of ocean and 38 nations the area includes island countries like the bahamas and cuba and the...
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