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are defined more narrowly in terms of one of several anatomical regions of the central retina in particular the fovea and the macula 1 the fovea is a cone shaped depression in the central retina measuring 1 5 mm in diameter corresponding 5 to 5 of the visual field 6 the outer boundaries of the fovea are visible under a microscope or with microscopic imaging technology such as oct or microscopic mri when viewed through the pupil as in an eye exam using an ophthalmoscope or retinal photography only the central portion of the fovea may be visible anatomists refer to this as the clinical fovea and say that it corresponds to the anatomical foveola a structure with a diameter of 0 35 mm corresponding to 1 degree of the visual field in clinical usage the central part of the fovea is typically referred to simply as the fovea 7 8 9 in terms of visual acuity foveal vision may be defined as vision using the part of the retina in which a visual acuity of at least 20 20 6 6 metric or 0 0 logmar internationally 1 0 is attained this corresponds to using the foveal avascular zone faz with a diameter of 0 5 mm representing 1 5 of the visual field although often idealized as perfect circles the central structures of the retina tend to be irregular ovals thus foveal vision may also be defined as the central 1 5 2 of the visual field vision within the fovea is generally called central vision while vision outside of the fovea or even outside the foveola is called peripheral or indirect vision 1 a ring shaped region surrounding the fovea known as the parafovea is sometimes taken to represent an intermediate form of vision called paracentral vision 10 the parafovea has an outer diameter of 2 5 mm representing 8 of the visual field 11 12 the macula the next larger region of the retina is defined as having at least two layers of ganglia bundles of nerves and neurons and is sometimes taken as defining the boundaries of central vs peripheral vision 13 14 15 but this is controversial 16 estimates of the macula s size differ 17 its diameter estimated at 6 10 18 corresponding to 1 7 2 9 mm up to 17 of the visual field 5 5 mm 5 19 12 the term is familiar in the general public through the widespread macular degeneration amd at older age where central vision is lost when viewed from the pupil as in an eye exam only the central portion of the macula may be visible known to anatomists as the clinical macula and in clinical setting as simply the macula this inner region is thought to correspond to the anatomical fovea 20 a dividing line between near and mid peripheral vision at 30 radius can be based on several features of visual performance visual acuity declines systematically up to 30 eccentricity at 2 acuity is half the foveal value at 4 one third at 6 one fourth etc at 30 it is one sixteenth the foveal value 21 1 from thereon the decline is steeper 22 23 note that it would be wrong to say the value were halved every 2 as said in some textbooks or in previous versions of this article 16 color perception is strong at 20 but weak at 40 24 in dark adapted vision light sensitivity corresponds to rod density citation needed which peaks just at 18 from 18 towards the center rod density declines rapidly from 18 away from the center rod density declines more gradually in a curve with distinct inflection points resulting in two humps the outer edge of the second hump is at about 30 and corresponds to the outer edge of good night vision 25 26 27 outer boundaries edit classical image of the shape and size of the visual field 28 the outer boundaries of peripheral vision correspond to the boundaries of the visual field as a whole for a single eye the extent of the visual field can be roughly defined in terms of four angles each measured from the fixation point i e the point at which one s gaze is directed these angles representing four cardinal directions are 60 upwards 60 nasally towards the nose 70 75 downwards and 100 110 temporally away from the nose and towards the temple 29 28 30 31 32 33 for both eyes the combined visual field is 130 135 vertically 34 35 and 200 220 horizontally 28 36 33 characteristics edit the loss of peripheral vision while retaining central vision is known as tunnel vision and the loss of central vision while retaining peripheral vision is known as central scotoma citation needed peripheral vision is weak in humans especially at distinguishing detail color and shape this is because the density of receptor and ganglion cells in the retina is greater at the center and lowest at the edges and moreover the representation in the visual cortex is much smaller than that of the fovea 1 see visual system for an explanation of these concepts the distribution of receptor cells across the retina is different between the two main types rod cells and cone cells rod cells are unable to distinguish color and peak in density in the near periphery at 18 eccentricity while cone cell density is highest in the very center the fovea note that this does not mean that there is a lack of cones representing in the periphery colors can be distinguished in peripheral vision 37 flicker fusion thresholds decline towards the periphery but do that at a lower rate than other visual functions so the periphery has a relative advantage at noticing flicker 1 peripheral vision is also relatively good at detecting motion a feature of magno cells central vision is relatively weak in the dark scotopic vision since cone cells lack sensitivity at low light levels rod cells which are concentrated further away from the fovea operate better than cone cells in low light this makes peripheral vision useful for detecting faint light sources at night like faint stars because of this pilots are taught to use peripheral vision to scan for aircraft at night citation needed ovals a b and c show which portions of the chess situation chess masters can reproduce correctly with their peripheral vision lines show path of foveal fixation during 5 seconds when the task is to memorize the situation as correctly as possible image from 38 based on data by 39 the distinctions between foveal sometimes also called central and peripheral vision are reflected in subtle physiological and anatomical differences in the visual cortex different visual areas contribute to the processing of visual information coming from different parts of the visual field and a complex of visual areas located along the banks of the interhemispheric fissure a deep groove that separates the two brain hemispheres has been linked to peripheral vision it has been suggested that these areas are important for fast reactions to visual stimuli in the periphery and monitoring body position relative to gravity 40 functions edit the main functions of peripheral vision are 38 recognition of well known structures and forms with no need to focus by the foveal line of sight identification of similar forms and movements gestalt psychology laws delivery of sensations which form the background of detailed visual perception extreme peripheral vision edit side view of the human eye viewed approximately 90 temporal illustrating how the iris and pupil appear rotated towards the viewer due to the optical properties of the cornea and the aqueous humor when viewed at large angles the iris and pupil appear to be rotated toward the viewer due to the optical refraction in the cornea as a result the pupil may still be visible at angles greater than 90 41 42 43 cone rich rim of the retina edit the rim of the retina contains a large concentration of cone cells the retina extends farthest in the superior nasal 45 quadrant in the direction from the pupil to the bridge of the nose with the greatest extent of the visual field in the opposite direction the inferior temporal 45 quadrant from the pupil of either eye towards the bottom of the nearest ear vision at this extreme part of the visual field is thought to be possibly concerned with threat detection measuring optical flow color constancy or circadian rhythm 44 45 46 see also edit averted vision bitemporal hemianopsia depth perception eye movement eye movement in music reading fovea perimetry visual field visual perception tunnel vision binocular vision macular degeneration glaucoma references edit a b c d e f strasburger hans rentschler ingo jüttner martin 2011 peripheral vision and pattern recognition a review journal of vision 11 5 13 doi 10 1167 11 5 13 issn 1534 7362 pmc 11073400 pmid 22207654 sardegna jill shelly susan rutzen allan richard scott m steidl 2002 the encyclopedia of blindness and vision impairment infobase publishing p 253 isbn 978 0 8160 6623 0 retrieved 30 november 2014 grosvenor theodore grosvenor theodore p 2007 primary care optometry elsevier health sciences p 129 isbn 978 0 7506 7575 8 retrieved 29 november 2014 bhise vivek d 15 september 2011 ergonomics in the automotive design process crc press p 68 isbn 978 1 4398 4210 2 retrieved 30 november 2014 a b 1 mm 3 436 millodot michel 30 july 2014 dictionary of optometry and visual science elsevier health sciences uk p 250 isbn 978 0 7020 5188 3 retrieved 30 november 2014 small robert g 15 august 1994 the clinical handbook of ophthalmology crc press p 134 isbn 978 1 85070 584 0 retrieved 29 november 2014 peyman gholam a meffert stephen a chou famin mandi d conway 27 november 2000 vitreoretinal surgical techniques crc press pp 6 7 isbn 978 1 85317 585 5 retrieved 29 november 2014 alfaro d virgil 2006 age related macular degeneration a comprehensive textbook lippincott williams wilkins p 3 isbn 978 0 7817 3899 6 retrieved 29 november 2014 colman andrew m 2009 a dictionary of psychology oxford university press p 546 isbn 978 0 19 953406 7 retrieved 30 november 2014 swanson william h fish gary e 1995 color matches in diseased eyes with good acuity detection of deficits in cone optical density and in chromatic discrimination journal of the optical society of america a 12 10 2230 2236 bibcode 1995josaa 12 2230s doi 10 1364 josaa 12 002230 issn 1084 7529 pmid 7500203 a b polyak s l 1941 the retina chicago the university of chicago press morris christopher g 1992 academic press dictionary of science and technology gulf professional publishing p 1610 isbn 978 0 12 200400 1 retrieved 29 november 2014 landolt edmund 1879 swan m burnett ed a manual of examination of the eyes d g brinton p 201 retrieved 29 november 2014 johnston j milton 1892 eye studies a series of lessons on vision and visual tests johnston p 56 retrieved 29 november 2014 a b strasburger hans may 19 2020 seven myths on crowding and peripheral vision i perception 11 3 doi 10 1177 2041669520913052 pmc 7238452 since there are no precise borders oyster clyde w 1999 the human eye structure and function sunderland mass sinauer associates isbn 0 87893 645 9 sizes based on data of polyak oesterberg and curcio gupta ak mazumdar shahana choudhry saurabh 2010 practical approach to ophthalmoscopic retinal diagnosis jaypee brothers publishers p 4 isbn 978 81 8448 877 7 retrieved 30 november 2014 alfaro d virgil kerrison john b 4 september 2014 age related macular degeneration wolters kluwer health pp 36 7 isbn 978 1 4698 8964 1 retrieved 30 november 2014 the decline is according to e 2 e 2 e where e is eccentricity in degrees visual angle and e 2 is a constant of approximately 2 an e 2 value of 2 results from anstis s 1974 figure 1 with the foveal value assumed to be standard 20 20 acuity anstis s m 1974 a chart demonstrating variations in acuity with retinal position vision research 14 7 589 592 doi 10 1016 0042 6989 74 90049 2 pmid 4419807 besharse joseph c bok dean 2011 the retina and its disorders academic press p 4 isbn 978 0 12 382198 0 abramov israel gordon james chan hoover 1991 color appearance in the peripheral retina effects of stimulus size journal of the optical society of america a 8 2 404 414 bibcode 1991josaa 8 404a doi 10 1364 josaa 8 000404 issn 1084 7529 pmid 2007915 sebag j october 2014 vitreous springer p 484 isbn 978 1 4939 1086 1 retrieved 2 december 2014 li zhaoping 8 may 2014 understanding vision theory models and data oup oxford p 37 isbn 978 0 19 100830 6 retrieved 2 december 2014 mcilwain james t 28 november 1996 an introduction to the biology of vision cambridge university press p 92 isbn 978 0 521 49890 6 retrieved 2 december 2014 a b c traquair harry moss 1938 an introduction to clinical perimetry chpt 1 london henry kimpton pp 4 5 rönne henning 1915 zur theorie und technik der bjerrrumschen gesichtsfelduntersuchung archiv für augenheilkunde 78 4 284 301 savino peter j danesh meyer helen v 1 may 2012 color atlas and synopsis of clinical ophthalmology wills eye institute neuro ophthalmology lippincott williams wilkins p 12 isbn 978 1 60913 266 8 retrieved 9 november 2014 ryan stephen j schachat andrew p wilkinson charles p david r hinton srinivas r sadda peter wiedemann 1 november 2012 retina elsevier health sciences p 342 isbn 978 1 4557 3780 2 retrieved 9 november 2014 trattler william b kaiser peter k friedman neil j 5 january 2012 review of ophthalmology expert consult online and print elsevier health sciences p 255 isbn 978 1 4557 3773 4 retrieved 9 november 2014 a b strasburger h jüttner m april 2024 erratum corrections to strasburger rentschler jüttner 2011 peripheral vision and pattern recognition journal of vision 24 15 doi 10 1167 jov 24 4 15 pmc 11033599 dagnelie gislin 21 february 2011 visual prosthetics physiology bioengineering rehabilitation springer science business media p 398 isbn 978 1 4419 0754 7 retrieved 9 november 2014 dohse k c 2007 effects of field of view and stereo graphics on memory in immersive command and control p 6 isbn 978 0 549 33503 0 retrieved 9 november 2014 szinte martin cavanagh patrick 15 october 2012 apparent motion from outside the visual field retinotopic cortices may register extra retinal positions plos one 7 10 e47386 bibcode 2012ploso 747386s doi 10 1371 journal pone 0047386 pmc 3471811 pmid 23077606 with our head and eyes steady our normal binocular vision covers a visual field of about 200 to 220 degrees of visual angle tyler christopher 2015 peripheral color demo i perception 6 6 5 doi 10 1177 2041669515613671 pmc 4975120 pmid 27551354 a b hans werner hunziker 2006 im auge des lesers foveale und periphere wahrnehmung vom buchstabieren zur lesefreude in the eye of the reader foveal and peripheral perception from letter recognition to the joy of reading transmedia stäubli verlag zürich 2006 isbn 978 3 7266 0068 6 de groot a perception and memory in chess an experimental study of the heuristics of the professional eye mimeograph psychologisch laboratorium universiteit van amsterdam seminarium september 1969 palmer sm rosa mg 2006 a distinct anatomical network of cortical areas for analysis of motion in far peripheral vision eur j neurosci 24 8 2389 405 doi 10 1111 j 1460 9568 2006 05113 x pmid 17042793 s2cid 21562682 spring k h stiles w s 1948 apparent shape and size of the pupil viewed obliquely british jour...