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ck heroic poems ever written 71 pope also translated the iliad 1715 1720 and the odyssey 1725 1726 since his death pope has been in a constant state of re evaluation 72 drama edit main article augustan drama drama in the early part of the period featured the last plays of john vanbrugh and william congreve both of whom carried on the restoration comedy with some alterations however the majority of stagings were of lower farces and much more serious and domestic tragedies george lillo and richard steele both produced highly moral forms of tragedy where the characters and the concerns of the characters were wholly middle class or working class this reflected a marked change in the audience for plays as royal patronage was no longer the important part of theatrical success additionally colley cibber and john rich began to battle each other for greater and greater spectacles to present on stage the figure of harlequin was introduced and pantomime theatre began to be staged this low comedy was quite popular and the plays became tertiary to the staging opera also began to be popular in london and there was significant literary resistance to this italian incursion in 1728 john gay returned to the playhouse with the beggar s opera the licensing act 1737 brought an abrupt halt to much of the period s drama as the theatres were once again brought under state control prose including the novel edit main article augustan prose in prose the earlier part of the period was overshadowed by the development of the english essay joseph addison and richard steele s the spectator established the form of the british periodical essay however this was also the time when the english novel was first emerging daniel defoe turned from journalism and writing criminal lives for the press to writing fictional criminal lives with moll flanders 1722 and roxana 1724 he also wrote robinson crusoe 1719 jonathan swift if addison and steele were dominant in one type of prose then jonathan swift author of the satire gulliver s travels was in another in a modest proposal and the drapier letters swift reluctantly defended the irish people from the predations of colonialism this provoked riots and arrests but swift who had no love of irish roman catholics was outraged by the abuses he saw an effect of the licensing act 1737 was to cause more than one aspiring playwright to switch over to writing novels henry fielding began to write prose satire and novels after his plays could not pass the censors in the interim samuel richardson had produced pamela or virtue rewarded 1740 and henry fielding attacked what he saw as the absurdity of this novel in shamela 1741 and joseph andrews 1742 age of sensibility 1745 1798 edit samuel johnson see also moral sense theory sensibility sentimental novel sentimentalism literature and sentimentality this period is known as the age of sensibility but it is also sometimes described as the age of johnson 73 samuel johnson often referred to as dr johnson was an english author who made lasting contributions to english literature as a poet essayist moralist literary critic biographer editor and lexicographer johnson has been described as arguably the most distinguished man of letters in english history 74 after nine years of work johnson s a dictionary of the english language was published in 1755 and it had a far reaching effect on modern english and has been described as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship 75 the second half of the 18th century saw the emergence of three major irish authors oliver goldsmith richard brinsley sheridan and laurence sterne goldsmith is the author of the vicar of wakefield 1766 a pastoral poem the deserted village 1770 and two plays the good natur d man 1768 and she stoops to conquer 1773 sheridan s first play the rivals 1775 was performed at covent garden and was an instant success he went on to become the most significant london playwright of the late 18th century with a play like the school for scandal both goldsmith and sheridan reacted against the sentimental comedy of the 18th century theatre writing plays closer to the style of restoration comedy 76 sterne published his famous novel tristram shandy in parts between 1759 and 1767 77 in 1778 frances burney wrote evelina one of the first novels of manners 78 fanny burney s novels were enjoyed and admired by jane austen 79 precursors of romanticism edit the romantic movement in english literature of the early 19th century has its roots in 18th century poetry the gothic novel and the novel of sensibility 80 81 this includes the graveyard poets from the 1740s and later whose works are characterised by gloomy meditations on mortality to this was added by later practitioners a feeling for the sublime and uncanny and an interest in ancient english poetic forms and folk poetry 82 important examples of graveyard poetry include night thoughts 1742 45 by edward young 83 the grave 1743 by robert blair and elegy written in a country churchyard 1751 by thomas gray 84 other precursors are james thomson and james macpherson 81 james macpherson was the first scottish poet to gain an international reputation with his claim to have found poetry written by the ancient bard ossian 85 the sentimental novel or novel of sensibility is a genre which developed during the second half of the 18th century it celebrates the emotional and intellectual concepts of sentiment sentimentalism and sensibility sentimentalism which is to be distinguished from sensibility was a fashion in both poetry and prose fiction which began in the 18th century in reaction to the rationalism of the augustan age 86 among the most famous sentimental novels in english are samuel richardson s pamela or virtue rewarded 1740 and clarissa or the history of a young lady 1748 oliver goldsmith s vicar of wakefield 1766 laurence sterne s tristram shandy 1759 67 and henry mackenzie s the man of feeling 1771 87 significant foreign influences were the germans goethe schiller and august wilhelm schlegel and french philosopher and writer jean jacques rousseau 88 edmund burke s a philosophical enquiry into the origin of our ideas of the sublime and beautiful 1757 is another important influence 89 the changing landscape brought about by the industrial revolution and british agricultural revolution was another influence on the growth of the romantic movement in britain in the late 18th century horace walpole s 1764 novel the castle of otranto created the gothic fiction genre that combines elements of horror and romance 90 ann radcliffe introduced the brooding figure of the gothic villain which developed into the byronic hero her the mysteries of udolpho 1795 is frequently cited as the archetypal gothic novel 91 rise of american literature edit the successful war of independence led by colonists in british north america from 1775 to 1783 resulted in the formation of the united states this consequently led to the divergence of english letters in what became the united states from the mainstream of english literature resulting in the development of a new american literature that sought to distinguish itself as part of the formation of a new american social and cultural identity this was the first english language literature to develop outside of the british isles the late colonial period already saw the publication of important prose tracts reflecting the political debates that culminated in the american revolution written by important luminaries such as samuel adams josiah quincy john dickinson and joseph galloway the last being a loyalist to the crown two key figures were benjamin franklin and thomas paine franklin s poor richard s almanack and the autobiography of benjamin franklin are esteemed works with their wit and influence toward the formation of a budding american identity paine s pamphlet common sense and the american crisis writings are seen as playing a key role in influencing the political tone of the time during the revolutionary war poems and songs such as nathan hale were popular major satirists included john trumbull and francis hopkinson philip morin freneau also wrote poems about the war in the post war period thomas jefferson established his place in american literature through his authorship of the declaration of independence his influence on the u s constitution his autobiography his notes on the state of virginia and his many letters the federalist essays by alexander hamilton james madison and john jay presented a significant historical discussion of american government organization and republican values fisher ames james otis and patrick henry are also valued for their political writings and orations early american literature struggled to find a unique voice in existing literary genre and this tendency was reflected in novels european styles were frequently imitated but critics usually considered the imitations inferior in the late 18th and early 19th centuries the first american novels were published these fictions were too lengthy to be printed for public reading publishers took a chance on these works in hopes they would become steady sellers and need to be reprinted this scheme was ultimately successful because male and female literacy rates were increasing at the time among the first american novels are thomas attwood digges s adventures of alonso published in london in 1775 and william hill brown s the power of sympathy published in 1789 brown s novel depicts a tragic love story between siblings who fell in love without knowing they were related also of note were important women writers such as susanna rowson who wrote charlotte a tale of truth later re issued as charlotte temple charlotte temple is a seduction tale influenced by the novels of english writer samuel richardson written in the third person which warns against listening to the voice of love and counsels resistance she also wrote nine novels six theatrical works two collections of poetry six textbooks and countless songs 92 reaching more than a million and a half readers over a century and a half charlotte temple was the biggest seller of the 19th century before stowe s uncle tom s cabin another important writer was hannah webster foster who wrote the popular the coquette or the history of eliza wharton published in 1797 93 the story about a woman who is seduced and later abandoned the coquette has been praised for its demonstration of the era s contradictory ideas of womanhood 94 even as it has been criticized for delegitimizing protest against women s subordination 95 other important early american writers include charles brockden brown william gilmore simms lydia maria child and john neal romanticism 1798 1837 edit main article romantic literature in english see also romantic literature romantic poetry romanticism and romanticism in scotland romanticism was an artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in europe toward the end of the 18th century 96 romanticism arrived later in other parts of the english speaking world william blake the romantic period was one of major social change in england and wales because of the depopulation of the countryside and the rapid development of overcrowded industrial cities that took place in the period roughly between 1750 and 1850 the movement of so many people in england was the result of two forces the agricultural revolution that involved the enclosure of the land drove workers off the land and the industrial revolution which provided them employment 97 romanticism may be seen in part as a reaction to the industrial revolution 98 though it was also a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the age of enlightenment as well a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature 99 the french revolution was an especially important influence on the political thinking of many of the romantic poets 100 the landscape is often prominent in the poetry of this period so much so that the romantics especially perhaps wordsworth are often described as nature poets however the longer romantic nature poems have a wider concern because they are usually meditations on an emotional problem or personal crisis 101 romantic poetry edit important early romantics include charlotte smith william blake and robert burns in 1784 with elegiac sonnets charlotte smith reintroduced the sonnet to english literature 102 103 the poet painter and printmaker william blake was another of the early romantic poets though blake was generally unrecognised during his lifetime he is now considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the romantic age among his most important works are songs of innocence 1789 and songs of experience 1794 and profound and difficult prophecies such as jerusalem the emanation of the giant albion 1804 c 1820 104 robert burns was a pioneer of the romantic movement and after his death he became a cultural icon in scotland after these early romantics the most significant british romantics were the lake poets including william wordsworth samuel taylor coleridge robert southey and journalist thomas de quincey however at the time walter scott was the most famous poet 105 the early romantic poets brought a new emotionalism and introspection and their emergence is marked by the first romantic manifesto in english literature the preface to lyrical ballads 1798 the poems in lyrical ballads were mostly by wordsworth though coleridge contributed rime of the ancient mariner 106 among wordsworth s most important poems are lines composed a few miles above tintern abbey resolution and independence ode intimations of immortality from recollections of early childhood and the autobiographical epic the prelude 107 robert southey was another of the so called lake poets and poet laureate for 30 years although his fame has been long eclipsed by william wordsworth and samuel taylor coleridge thomas de quincey is best known for his confessions of an english opium eater 1821 108 essayist william hazlitt 1778 1830 friend of both coleridge and wordsworth is best known today for his literary criticism especially characters of shakespear s plays 1817 109 second generation edit lord byron the second generation of romantic poets includes lord byron percy bysshe shelley and john keats byron however was still influenced by 18th century satirists and was perhaps the least romantic of the three preferring the brilliant wit of pope to what he called the wrong poetical system of his romantic contemporaries 110 byron achieved enormous fame and influence throughout europe and goethe called byron undoubtedly the greatest genius of our century 111 shelley is perhaps best known for ode to the west wind to a skylark and adonais an elegy written on the death of keats his close circle of admirers included the most progressive thinkers of the day a work like queen mab 1813 reveals shelley as the direct heir to the french and british 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