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ers as supporting mentioning or contrasting the study 65 other examples include developments of alternative metrics 66 which beyond providing help for assessment and findability also aggregate many of the public discussions about a scientific paper on social media such as reddit citations on wikipedia and reports about the study in the news media 67 and a call for showing whether or not the original findings are confirmed or could get reproduced 68 69 in museums edit metadata in a museum context is the information that trained cultural documentation specialists such as archivists librarians museum registrars and curators create to index structure describe identify or otherwise specify works of art architecture cultural objects and their images 70 71 72 descriptive metadata is most commonly used in museum contexts for object identification and resource recovery purposes 71 usage edit metadata is developed and applied within collecting institutions and museums in order to facilitate resource discovery and execute search queries 72 create digital archives that store information relating to various aspects of museum collections and cultural objects and serve archival and managerial purposes 72 provide public audiences access to cultural objects through publishing digital content online 71 72 standards edit many museums and cultural heritage centers recognize that given the diversity of artworks and cultural objects no single model or standard suffices to describe and catalog cultural works 70 71 72 for example a sculpted indigenous artifact could be classified as an artwork an archaeological artifact or an indigenous heritage item the early stages of standardization in archiving description and cataloging within the museum community began in the late 1990s with the development of standards such as categories for the description of works of art cdwa spectrum cidoc conceptual reference model crm cataloging cultural objects cco and the cdwa lite xml schema 71 these standards use html and xml markup languages for machine processing publication and implementation 71 the anglo american cataloguing rules aacr originally developed for characterizing books have also been applied to cultural objects works of art and architecture 72 standards such as the cco are integrated within a museum s collections management system cms a database through which museums are able to manage their collections acquisitions loans and conservation 72 scholars and professionals in the field note that the quickly evolving landscape of standards and technologies creates challenges for cultural documentarians specifically non technically trained professionals 73 page needed most collecting institutions and museums use a relational database to categorize cultural works and their images 72 relational databases and metadata work to document and describe the complex relationships amongst cultural objects and multi faceted works of art as well as between objects and places people and artistic movements 71 72 relational database structures are also beneficial within collecting institutions and museums because they allow for archivists to make a clear distinction between cultural objects and their images an unclear distinction could lead to confusing and inaccurate searches 72 cultural objects and artworks edit an object s materiality function and purpose as well as the size e g measurements such as height width weight storage requirements e g climate controlled environment and focus of the museum and collection influence the descriptive depth of the data attributed to the object by cultural documentarians 72 the established institutional cataloging practices goals and expertise of cultural documentarians and database structure also influence the information ascribed to cultural objects and the ways in which cultural objects are categorized 70 72 additionally museums often employ standardized commercial collection management software that prescribes and limits the ways in which archivists can describe artworks and cultural objects 73 as well collecting institutions and museums use controlled vocabularies to describe cultural objects and artworks in their collections 71 72 getty vocabularies and the library of congress controlled vocabularies are reputable within the museum community and are recommended by cco standards 72 museums are encouraged to use controlled vocabularies that are contextual and relevant to their collections and enhance the functionality of their digital information systems 71 72 controlled vocabularies are beneficial within databases because they provide a high level of consistency improving resource retrieval 71 72 metadata structures including controlled vocabularies reflect the ontologies of the systems from which they were created often the processes through which cultural objects are described and categorized through metadata in museums do not reflect the perspectives of the maker communities 70 74 museums and the internet edit metadata has been instrumental in the creation of digital information systems and archives within museums and has made it easier for museums to publish digital content online this has enabled audiences who might not have had access to cultural objects due to geographic or economic barriers to have access to them 71 in the 2000s as more museums have adopted archival standards and created intricate databases discussions about linked data between museum databases have come up in the museum archival and library science communities 73 collection management systems cms and digital asset management tools can be local or shared systems 72 digital humanities scholars note many benefits of interoperability between museum databases and collections while also acknowledging the difficulties of achieving such interoperability 73 law edit the examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject you may improve this article discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new article as appropriate march 2015 learn how and when to remove this template message united states edit problems involving metadata in litigation in the united states are becoming widespread when courts have looked at various questions involving metadata including the discoverability of metadata by parties the federal rules of civil procedure have specific rules for discovery of electronically stored information and subsequent case law applying those rules has elucidated on the litigant s duty to produce metadata when litigating in federal court 75 in october 2009 the arizona supreme court has ruled that metadata records are public record 76 document metadata have proven particularly important in legal environments in which litigation has requested metadata that can include sensitive information detrimental to a certain party in court using metadata removal tools to clean or redact documents can mitigate the risks of unwittingly sending sensitive data this process partially see data remanence protects law firms from potentially damaging leaking of sensitive data through electronic discovery opinion polls have shown that 45 of americans are not at all confident in the ability of social media sites to ensure their personal data is secure and 40 say that social media sites should not be able to store any information on individuals 76 of americans say that they are not confident that the information advertising agencies collect on them is secure and 50 say that online advertising agencies should not be allowed to record any of their information at all 77 australia edit in australia the need to strengthen national security has resulted in the introduction of a new metadata storage law 78 this new law means that both security and policing agencies will be allowed to access up to 2 years of an individual s metadata with the aim of making it easier to stop any terrorist attacks and serious crimes from happening in legislation edit legislative metadata has been the subject of some discussion in law gov forums such as workshops held by the legal information institute at the cornell law school on 22 and 23 march 2010 the documentation for these forums is titled suggested metadata practices for legislation and regulations 79 a handful of key points have been outlined by these discussions section headings of which are listed as follows general considerations document structure document contents metadata elements of layering point in time versus post hoc in healthcare edit australian medical research pioneered the definition of metadata for applications in health care that approach offers the first recognized attempt to adhere to international standards in medical sciences instead of defining a proprietary standard under the world health organization who umbrella the medical community yet did not approve of the need to follow metadata standards despite research that supported these standards 80 in biomedical research edit research studies in the fields of biomedicine and molecular biology frequently yield large quantities of data including results of genome or meta genome sequencing proteomics data and even notes or plans created during the course of research itself 81 each data type involves its own variety of metadata and the processes necessary to produce these metadata general metadata standards such as isa tab 82 allow researchers to create and exchange experimental metadata in consistent formats specific experimental approaches frequently have their own metadata standards and systems metadata standards for mass spectrometry include mzml 83 and splash 84 while xml based standards such as pdbml 85 and sra xml 86 serve as standards for macromolecular structure and sequencing data respectively the products of biomedical research are generally realized as peer reviewed manuscripts and these publications are yet another source of data see in science data warehousing edit a data warehouse dw is a repository of an organization s electronically stored data data warehouses are designed to manage and store the data data warehouses differ from business intelligence bi systems because bi systems are designed to use data to create reports and analyze the information to provide strategic guidance to management 87 metadata is an important tool in how data is stored in data warehouses the purpose of a data warehouse is to house standardized structured consistent integrated correct cleaned and timely data extracted from various operational systems in an organization the extracted data are integrated in the data warehouse environment to provide an enterprise wide perspective data are structured in a way to serve the reporting and analytic requirements the design of structural metadata commonality using a data modeling method such as entity relationship model diagramming is important in any data warehouse development effort they detail metadata on each piece of data in the data warehouse an essential component of a data warehouse business intelligence system is the metadata and tools to manage and retrieve the metadata ralph kimball 88 describes metadata as the dna of the data warehouse as metadata defines the elements of the data warehouse and how they work together kimball et al 89 refers to 3 main categories of metadata technical metadata business metadata and process metadata technical metadata is primarily definitional while business metadata and process metadata is primarily descriptive the categories sometimes overlap technical metadata defines the objects and processes in a dw bi system as seen from a technical point of view the technical metadata includes the system metadata which defines the data structures such as tables fields data types indexes and partitions in the relational engine as well as databases dimensions measures and data mining models technical metadata defines the data model and the way it is displayed for the users with the reports schedules distribution lists and user security rights business metadata is content from the data warehouse described in more user friendly terms the business metadata tells you what data you have where they come from what they mean and what their relationship is to other data in the data warehouse business metadata may also serve as documentation for the dw bi system users who browse the data warehouse are primarily viewing the business metadata process metadata is used to describe the results of various operations in the data warehouse within the etl process all key data from tasks is logged on execution this includes start time end time cpu seconds used disk reads disk writes and rows processed when troubleshooting the etl or query process this sort of data becomes valuable process metadata is the fact measurement when building and using a dw bi system some organizations make a living out of collecting and selling this sort of data to companies in that case the process metadata becomes the business metadata for the fact and dimension tables collecting process metadata is in the interest of business people who can use the data to identify the users of their products which products they are using and what level of service they are receiving on the internet edit the html format used to define web pages allows for the inclusion of a variety of types of metadata from basic descriptive text dates and keywords to further advanced metadata schemes such as the dublin core e gms and agls 90 standards pages and files can also be geotagged with coordinates categorized or tagged including collaboratively such as with folksonomies when media has identifiers set or when such can be generated information such as file tags and descriptions can be pulled or scraped from the internet for example about movies 91 various online databases are aggregated and provide metadata for various data the collaboratively built wikidata has identifiers not just for media but also abstract concepts various objects and other entities that can be looked up by humans and machines to retrieve useful information and to link knowledge in other knowledge bases and databases 62 metadata may be included in the page s header or in a separate file microformats allow metadata to be added to on page data in a way that regular web users do not see but computers web crawlers and search engines can readily access many search engines are cautious about using metadata in their ranking algorithms because of exploitation of metadata and the practice of search engine optimization seo to improve rankings see the meta element article for further discussion this cautious attitude may be justified as people according to doctorow 92 are not executing care and diligence when creating their own metadata and that metadata is part of a competitive environment where the metadata is used to promote the metadata creators own purposes studies show that search engines respond to web pages with metadata implementations 93 and google has an announcement on i...
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