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to accommodate changes in its external environment or because the customer requires functional or performance enhancements software maintenance reapplies each of the preceding phases to an existing program rather than a new one the linear sequential model is the oldest and the most widely used model for software engineering some of the problems that may arise when linear sequential model is applied are 1 real projects rarely follow the sequential flow that the model proposes although the linear model can accommodate iterations it does so indirectly as a result changes can cause confusion as the project team proceeds 2 it is often difficult for the customer to state all the requirements explicitly the linear sequential model requires this and has difficulty accommodating the natural uncertainty that exists at the beginning of many projects 3 the customer must have patience a working version of the program will not be available until late in the project time span a major blunder if undetected until the working program is reviewed can be disastrous each of these problems is real but still the classic life cycle model has a definite and important place in the software engineering work it provides a template into which methods for analysis design coding testing and maintenance can be placed the classic life cycle remains the most widely used process model for software engineering ii the prototyping model often a customer defines a set of general objectives for software but does not identify detailed input processing or output requirements in other cases the developer may be unsure of the efficiency of an algorithm the adaptability of an operating system or the form that human machine interaction should take in these and many other situations a prototyping model may offer the best approach the prototype model shown below begins with requirement gathering developer and customer meet and define the overall objectives for the software identify whatever requirements are known and outline the areas where further definition is required the output is quick design a quick design focuses on a representation of those aspects of the software that will be visible to the customer the quick design leads to the construction of a prototype the prototype is evaluated by the customer and is used to refine the requirements for the software to be developed iteration occurs as the prototype is tuned to satisfy the needs of the customer at the same time enabling the developer to better understand the needs of the customer the prototype model serves as a mechanism for identifying software requirements both the developer and the customer like this model customers get a feel of the actual system and developer gets some idea about the requirements of the customer yet prototype model do have disadvantages 1 the customer sees what appears to a working version of the software unaware of the things like in a hurry to get it working software quality and maintainability had not been considered when informed that the product must be rebuilt so that high level of quality can be maintained the customer demands that with a slight modification prototype model can be converted into a working model too often the software development management relents 2 the developer often makes implementation compromises in order to get a prototype working quickly an inappropriate operating system or programming language may be used simply because it is available and known an inefficient algorithm may be implemented simply to demonstrate capability after sometime the developer may become familiar with these choices and forget all the reasons why they were inappropriate the less than ideal choice has now become an integral part of the system although problems can occur prototyping can be an effective model for software engineering the key is to define the rules at the beginning that is the customer and the developer must both agree that the prototype is built to serve as a mechanism for defining requirements it is then discarded and the actual software is engineered with the aim towards the quality and maintainability iii the incremental model the incremental model combines elements of the linear sequential model with the iterative nature of the prototyping the incremental model applies the linear sequences in a staggered fashion as the time progresses as shown in the figure below each linear sequence produces a deliverable increment of the software in incremental model the increment is a core product in which the requirements are addressed the core product is used by the customer as a result of use and evaluation a plan is developed for the next increment the plan addresses the modification of the core product to meet the needs of the customer and delivery of additional features and functionality this process is repeated until the complete product is produced the incremental model like prototyping is iterative in nature but unlike prototyping the incremental model focuses on the delivery of an operational product with each increment the early versions of the incremental model provide a platform for the user to evaluate the requirements incremental development is useful when staffing is unavailable for the complete implementation by the deadline that has been established for the project early increments can be implemented with fewer people if the core product is well received then additional staff can be added to implement the next increment iv the spiral model the spiral model is an evolutionary software process model that couples the iterative nature of prototyping with the controlled and systematic aspects of linear sequential model in spiral model software is developed in a series of incremental releases during early iterations the incremental release might be paper model or prototype during later iterations increasingly more complete versions of the engineered system are produced the spiral model is divided into a number of framework activities also called task regions there may be between three and six task regions figure below depicts a spiral model that contains six task regions 1 customer communication tasks required to establish effective communication between developer and customer 2 planning tasks required to define resources timelines and other project related information 3 risk analysis tasks required to assess both technical and management risks 4 engineering tasks required to build one or more representations of the application 5 construction release tasks required to construct test install and provide user support documentation and training 6 customer evaluation tasks required to obtain customer feedback based on evaluation of the software representations created during engineering stage and implemented during the installation stage each of the regions is populated by a series of work tasks that are adapted to the characteristics of the project to be undertaken for small projects the number of work tasks and their formalities are low for larger more critical projects each task region contains more work tasks that are defined to achieve a higher level of formality as this evolutionary process begins the software engineering team moves around the spiral in a clockwise direction beginning at the core the first circuit around the spiral might result in the development of a product specification subsequent passes around the spiral might be used to develop a prototype and then progressively more sophisticated versions of the software each pass through the planning region results in adjustments to the project plan cost and schedule are adjusted based on the feedback derived from customer evaluation in addition the project manager adjusts the planned number of iterations required to complete the software the spiral model is a realistic approach to the development of large scale system and software because software evolves as the process progresses the developer and the customer better understand and react to risks at each evolutionary level the spiral model maintains the systematic stepwise approach suggested by the classic life cycle but incorporates it into an iterative framework that more realistically reflects the real world but like other models the spiral model is not a universally accepted model it may be difficult to convince the customer that the evolutionary approach is controllable it requires considerable risk assessment expertise and completely relies on this expertise for success if a major risk is not uncovered and managed problems will occur finally the model itself is relatively new and has not been used as widely as sequential model or prototyping model v rad model rad is a linear sequential software development process model that emphasis an extremely short development cycle using a component based construction approach if the requirements are well understood and defines and the project scope is constraint the rad process enables a development team to create a fully functional system with in very short time period one of the conveniences of developing software is that it is not a physical tool that can be lost once it gets developed or manufactured codes are used to implement the software and it does not disappear together with the product we can re use the code all over again in another software we just make a little change in the interface to fit the requirement of the client and we have a brand new program to make our lives even better in developing software there are tools coming out of the marking that serves as code generators no need to create complicated codes we just run the system through our preferences and we have a fully functional program the idea of reusing codes and tools is what defines another form of software development life cycle called rapid application development or rad this form of software development constantly refers to the objective instead of creating original coding developers use other tools such as software development kits and other graphic user interfaces to create programs rad also relies heavily on the available codes and reuses it to fit the intended program since rad uses gui development kits and existing codes software development will be faster the operational development of the software also works like the prototype version instead of planning out and creating a single documentation developers only have to look at the objective and use it as a motivation to create a program it will be constantly tested and checked as the new prototype is released developers constantly create screens and show a workflow until it s approved by users it is a very simple process since it doesn t have to use so many original ideas it s basically an aggregate of different tools and cleverly using them to create completely different software rad focuses more on the visual instead of the coding or software development since it already uses tools for generating codes developers will have more time setting up the gui of the software rather than focusing on the root structure of the program the development cycle also enlists the help of the users to make sure the product being developed could match their taste this will ensure a good user feedback since their ideas was acknowledged and had an actual impact on the product development rad reduces stress in creating gui coding and structure since it has a remote possibility of being trashed by users rad rapid application development is a concept that products can be developed faster and of higher quality through 1 gathering requirements using workshops or focus groups 2 prototyping and early reiterative user testing of designs 3 the re use of software components 4 a rigidly paced schedule that defers design improvements to the next product version 5 less formality in reviews and other team communication some companies offer products that provide some or all of the tools for rad software development the concept can be applied to hardware development as well these products include requirements gathering tools prototyping tools computer aided software engineering tools language development environments such as those for the java platform groupware for communication among development members and testing tools rad usually embraces object oriented programming methodology which inherently fosters software re use the most popular object oriented programming languages c and java are offered in visual programming packages often described as providing rapid application development rad model has the following phases business modeling the information flow among business functions is defined by answering questions like what information drives the business process what information is generated who generates it where does the information go who process it and so on data modeling the information collected from business modeling is refined into a set of data objects entities that are needed to support the business the attributes character of each entity are identified and the relation between these data objects entities is defined process modeling the data object defined in the data modeling phase are transformed to achieve the information flow necessary to implement a business function processing descriptions are created for adding modifying deleting or retrieving a data object application generation automated tools are used to facilitate construction of the software even they use the 4th gl techniques testing and turn over many of the programming components have already been tested since rad emphasis reuse this reduces overall testing time but new components must be tested and all interfaces must be fully exercised advantage and disadvantages rad reduces the development time and reusability of components help to speed up development all functions are modularized so it is easy to work with for large projects rad require highly skilled engineers in the team both end customer and developer should be committed to complete the system in a much abbreviated time frame if commitment is lacking rad will fail rad is based on object oriented approach and if it is difficult to modularize the project the rad may not work well the traditional software development cycle follows a rigid sequence of steps with a formal sign off at the completion of each a complete detailed requirements analysis is done that attempts to capture the system requirements in a requirements specification users are forced to sign off on the specification before development proceeds to the next step this is followed by a complete system design and then development and testing but what if the design phase uncovers requirements that are technically unfeasible or extremely expensive to implement what if errors in the design are encountered during the build phase the elapsed time between the initial analysis and testing is usually a period of several months what if business requirements or priorities change or the users realize they overlooked...
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