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d argued against polygenism wishing to support the account drawn from the book of genesis of a single human origin in particular he argued that humans were one species using the interfertility criterion of hybridity 12 by his use of a form of natural selection to argue for change of human skin colour as a historical process he also implied a time scale long enough for such a process to have produced the observed differences 13 incompatible views of chronology edit the early christian church contested claims that pagan traditions were older than that of the bible theophilus of antioch and augustine of hippo both argued against egyptian views that the world was at least 100 000 years old this figure was too high to be compatible with biblical chronology 14 one of la peyrère s propositions that china was at least 10 000 years old gained wider currency 15 martino martini had provided details of traditional chinese chronology from which it was deduced by isaac vossius that noah s flood was local rather than universal 16 one of the considerations detected in la peyrère by otto zöckler was concern with the antipodes and their people were they pre adamites or indeed had there been a second adam of the antipodes 17 in a 19th century sequel alfred russel wallace in an 1867 book review pointed to the pacific islanders as posing a problem for those holding both to monogenism and a recent date for human origins in other words he took migration from an original location to remote islands that are now populated to imply a long time scale 18 a significant consequence of the recognition of the antiquity of man was the greater scope for conjectural history in particular for all aspects of diffusionism and social evolutionism 19 creation of man in a world not ready edit while extinction of species came with the development of geology to be widely accepted in the early 19th century there was resistance on theological grounds to extinctions after the creation of man it was argued in particular in the 1820s and 1830s that man would not be created into an imperfect world as far as design of its collection of species was concerned this reasoning cut across that which was conclusive for the science of the antiquity of man a generation later 20 archaeological context edit the late 18th century was a period in which french and german caves were explored and remains taken for study 21 caving was in fashion if speleology was only in its infancy and the st beatus caves for example attracted many visitors caves were a theme of the art of the time also 22 waterfall seen from a cave in solothurn switzerland engraving of the later 18th century cave remains proved of great importance to the science of the antiquity of man stalagmite formation was a clearcut mechanism of formation of fossils and its stratigraphy could be understood other sites of importance were associated with alluvial deposits of gravel and clay or peat the early example of the gray s inn lane hand axe was from gravel in a bed of a tributary of the river thames but remained isolated for about a century palaeolithic pierced baton spear thrower from kesslerloch cave thayngen switzerland the three age system was in place from about 1820 in the form given to it by christian jürgensen thomsen in his work on the collections that became the national museum of denmark he published his ideas in 1836 13 postulating cultural change in itself and without explaining a rate of change did not generate reasons to revise traditional chronology 23 but the concept of stone age artifacts became current thomsen s book in danish ledetraad til nordisk oldkyndighed was translated into german leitfaden zur nordischen alterthumskunde 1837 and english guide to northern archæology 1848 24 25 john frere s 1797 discovery of the hoxne handaxe 26 helped to initiate the 19th century debate 27 but it started in earnest around 1810 28 there were then a number of false starts relating to different european sites william buckland misjudged what he had found in 1823 with the misnamed red lady of paviland and explained away the mammoth remains with the find 29 he also was dismissive of the kent s cavern findings of john macenery in the later 1820s in 1829 philippe charles schmerling discovered a neanderthal fossil skull at engis at that point however its significance was not recognised and rudolf virchow consistently opposed the theory that it was very old the 1847 book antiquités celtiques et antediluviennes by boucher de perthes about saint acheul was found unconvincing in its presentation until it was reconsidered about a decade later page showing flint implements from guide to northern archæology 1848 english translation by francis egerton 1st earl of ellesmere from the danish ledetraad til nordisk oldkyndighed 1836 of christian jürgensen thomsen the debate moved on only in the context of further stone tools that were admitted to be made by stone age man found on sites where the stratigraphy could be argued to be clear and undisturbed with remains of animals that were in the consensus of palaeontologists now extinct it was this combination extinct faunal remains human artifacts that provided the evidence that came to be seen as crucial a sudden acceleration of research was seen from mid 1858 when the geological society set up a cave committee besides hugh falconer who had pressed for it the committee comprised charles lyell richard owen william pengelly joseph prestwich and andrew ramsay 30 debate on uniformity and change edit main article uniformitarianism on the one hand lack of uniformity in prehistory is what gave science traction on the question of the antiquity of man and on the other hand there were at the time theories that tended to rule out certain types of lack of regularity john lubbock outlined in 1890 the way the antiquity of man had in his time been established as derived from change in prehistory in fauna geography and climate 31 the hypotheses required to establish that these changes were facts of prehistory were themselves in tension with the uniformitarianism that was held to by some scientists therefore the protean concept uniformitarianism was adjusted to accommodate the past changes that could be established zoological uniformity on earth was debated already in the early eighteenth century george berkeley argued in alciphron that the lack of human artifacts in deeper excavations suggested a recent origin of man 32 evidence of absence was of course seen as problematic to establish gottfried leibniz in his protogaea produced arguments against identification of a species via morphology without evidence of descent having in mind a characterisation of humans by possession of reason and against the discreteness of species and their extinction 33 uniformitarianism held the field against the competitor theories of neptunism and catastrophism which partook of romantic science and theological cosmogony it established itself as the successor of plutonism and became the foundation of modern geology its tenets were correspondingly firmly held charles lyell put forward at one point views on what were called uniformity of kind and uniformity of degree that were incompatible with what was argued later lyell s theory in fact was of a steady state geology which he deduced from his principles this went too far in restricting actual geological processes to a predictable closed system if it ruled out ice ages see ice ages causes of ice ages as became clearer not long after lyell s principles of geology appeared 1830 3 34 35 of lubbock s three types of change the geographical included the theory of migration over land bridges in biogeography which in general acted as an explanatory stopgap rather than in most cases being one supported by science sea level changes were easier to justify glacial conditions edit further information timeline of glaciation quaternary glacial cycles the grindelwald glacier in switzerland 1774 painting by caspar wolf the identification of ice ages was important context for the antiquity of man because it was accepted that certain mammals had died out with the last of the ice ages which were clearly marked in the geological record georges cuvier s recherches sur les ossements fossiles de quadrupèdes 1812 had accepted facts of the extinctions of mammals that were to be relevant to human antiquity the concept of an ice age was proposed in 1837 by louis agassiz and it opened the way to the study of glacial history of the quaternary william buckland came to see evidence of glaciers in what he had taken to be remains of the biblical flood it seemed adequately proved that the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were mammals of the ice ages and had ceased to exist with the ice ages they inhabited europe when it was tundra and not afterwards in fact such extinct mammals were typically found in diluvium as it was then called distinctive gravel or boulder clay glacial and interglacial cycles as represented by atmospheric co 2 measured from ice core samples going back 800 000 years given that the animals were associated with these strata establishing the date of the strata could be by geological arguments based on uniformity of stratigraphy and so the animals extinction was dated an extinction can still strictly only be dated on assumptions as evidence of absence for a particular site however the argument can be from local extinction neither agassiz nor buckland adopted the new views on the antiquity of man acceptance of human association with extinct animal species edit boucher de perthes had written up discoveries in the somme valley in 1847 joseph prestwich and john evans in april 1859 and charles lyell with others also in 1859 made field trips to the sites and returned convinced that humans had coexisted with extinct mammals in general and qualitative terms lyell felt the evidence established the antiquity of man that humans were much older than the traditional assumptions had made them 36 his conclusions were shared by the royal society and other british learned institutions as well as in france it was this recognition of the early date of acheulean handaxes that first established the scientific credibility of the deep antiquity of humans 37 flint implements found 1861 2 at aurignac in the french pyrénées by édouard lartet this debate was concurrent with that over the book on the origin of species published in 1859 and was evidently related but was not one in which charles darwin initially made his own views public consolidation of the antiquity of man required more work with stricter methods and this proved possible over the next two decades the discoveries of boucher de perthes therefore motivated further researches to try to repeat and confirm the findings at other sites significant in this were excavations by william pengelly at brixham cavern and with a systematic approach at kents cavern 1865 1880 38 another major project which produced quicker findings was that of henry christy and édouard lartet lartet in 1860 had published results from a cave near massat ariège claiming stone tool cuts on bones of extinct mammals made when the bones were fresh 39 list of key sites for the 19th century debate edit site date s investigators findings and contemporary view image kingsbridge london england 1671 john conyers gray s inn lane hand axe mammoth teeth theories about roman elephants not accepted by conyers hoxne suffolk england 1797 john frere handaxes published by the society of antiquaries but the bones and shells remained unidentified 26 40 goat s hole cave gower peninsula wales 1823 william buckland red lady of paviland mammoth remains kents cavern devon england 1824 thomas northmore john macenery william pengelly bize minervois france 1827 paul tournal paul tournal 1805 1872 who became a pharmacist investigated cave deposits in the narbonne area he used the neologism anté historique 41 he found human remains with those of extinct animals communicated with georges cuvier and was met with incomprehension 42 pondres gard france 1828 jules de christol 43 jules de christol 1802 1861 found caves filled with mud and gravel containing bones of hyaena rhinoceros and humans the contemporary deposition of bones was not accepted by a commission under cuvier and pottery was found lower 44 engis belgium 1829 philippe charles schmerling saint acheul amiens france 1847 boucher de perthes acheulean handaxes brixham cave devon england 1858 william pengelly aurignac france 1860 édouard lartet vézère valley dordogne france 1863 édouard lartet henry christy further issues edit antiquity of man in the new world edit main article settlement of the americas tertiary man edit when the science was considered reasonably settled as to the existence of quaternary man humans of the pleistocene there remained the issue as to whether man had existed in the tertiary a now obsolete term used for the preceding geological period the debate on the antiquity of man resonated in the later debate over eoliths which were supposed proof of the existence of man in the pliocene during the neogene in this case the sceptical view won out 45 publications edit publications of the central years of the debate edit édouard lartet the antiquity of man in western europe 1860 new researches on the coexistence of man and of the great fossil mammifers characteristic of the last geological period 1861 charles lyell geological evidences of the antiquity of man 1863 it was a major synthesis that discussed the issue of human antiquity in parallel with the further issues of the ice ages and human evolution that promised to throw light on the origins of man t h huxley evidence as to man s place in nature 1863 alfred russel wallace the origin of human races and the antiquity of man deduced from the theory of natural selection 1864 james geikie the great ice age and its relation to the antiquity of man 1874 publications of the latter stages of the debate edit john patterson maclean a manual of the antiquity of man 1877 james cocke southall 46 the epoch of the mammoth and the apparition of man upon the earth 1878 william boyd dawkins early man in britain and his place in the tertiary period 1880 richard owen antiquity of man as deduced from the discovery of a human skeleton during excavations of the docks at tilbury 1884 george frederick wright the ice age in north america and its bearings upon the antiquity of man 1889 george grant maccurdy recent discoveries bearing on the antiquity of man in europe 1910 george frederick wright origin and antiquity of man 1912 arthur keith the antiquity of man 1915 see also edit tool use by animals list of first human settlements references edit citations james c kaufman robert j sternberg the cambridge handbook of creativity 2010 p 280 google books armitage s j jasim s a marks a e parker a g usik v i uerpmann h p 2011 hints of earlier human exit from africa science 331 6016 science news 453 6 doi 10 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