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this was self alone in the shape of a person puruṣa he looking around saw nothing but his self atman he first said this is i therefore he became i by name brihadaranyaka upanishad 1 4 1 81 82 the early speculative phase took place in the first half of the first millennium bce 70 when ascetic spirituality and monastic sramana and yati traditions came into vogue in india and ancient scholars combined enumerated set s of principles with a methodology of reasoning that results in spiritual knowledge vidya jnana viveka 73 these early non samkhya speculations and proto samkhya ideas are visible in earlier hindu scriptures such as the vedas note 3 early upanishads such as the chandogya upanishad 73 note 4 and the bhagavad gita 87 70 however these early speculations and proto samkhya ideas had not distilled and congealed into a distinct complete philosophy 88 ascetic origins edit while some earlier scholars have argued for upanishadic origins of the sankhya tradition note 4 and the upanishads contain dualistic speculations which may have influenced proto sankhya 87 89 other scholars have noted the dissimilarities of samkhya with the vedic tradition as early as 1898 richard karl von garbe a german professor of philosophy and indologist wrote in 1898 the origin of the sankhya system appears in the proper light only when we understand that in those regions of india which were little influenced by brahmanism political connotation given by the christian missionary the first attempt had been made to solve the riddles of the world and of our existence merely by means of reason for the sankhya philosophy is in its essence not only atheistic but also inimical to the veda 90 dandekar similarly wrote in 1968 the origin of the sankhya is to be traced to the pre vedic non aryan thought complex 91 heinrich zimmer states that samkhya has non aryan origins 21 note 1 anthony warder 1994 first ed 1967 writes that the sankhya and mīmāṃsā schools appear to have been established before the sramana traditions in india c 500 bce and he finds that samkhya represents a relatively free development of speculation among the brahmans independent of the vedic revelation 93 warder writes sankhya has indeed been suggested to be non brahmanical and even anti vedic in origin but there is no tangible evidence for that except that it is very different than most vedic speculation but that is itself quite inconclusive speculations in the direction of the samkhya can be found in the early upanishads 94 according to ruzsa in 2006 sāṅkhya has a very long history its roots go deeper than textual traditions allow us to see 95 stating that sāṅkhya likely grew out of speculations rooted in cosmic dualism and introspective meditational practice 95 the dualism is rooted in agricultural concepts of the union of the male sky god and the female earth goddess the union of the spiritual immaterial lordly immobile fertilizer represented as the śiva liṅgam or phallus and of the active fertile powerful but subservient material principle śakti or power often as the horrible dark lady kālī 95 in contrast the ascetic and meditative yoga practice in contrast aimed at overcoming the limitations of the natural body and achieving perfect stillness of the mind a combination of these views may have resulted in the concept of the puruṣa the unchanging immaterial conscious essence contrasted with prakṛti the material principle that produces not only the external world and the body but also the changing and externally determined aspects of the human mind such as the intellect ego internal and external perceptual organs 95 according to ruzsa both the agrarian theology of śiva śakti sky earth and the tradition of yoga meditation do not appear to be rooted in the vedas not surprisingly classical sāṅkhya is remarkably independent of orthodox brahmanic traditions including the vedas sāṅkhya is silent about the vedas about their guardians the brahmins and for that matter about the whole caste system and about the vedic gods and it is slightly unfavorable towards the animal sacrifices that characterized the ancient vedic religion but all our early sources for the history of sāṅkhya belong to the vedic tradition and it is thus reasonable to suppose that we do not see in them the full development of the sāṅkhya system but rather occasional glimpses of its development as it gained gradual acceptance in the brahmanic fold 95 burley argues for an ontegenetic or incremental development of samkhya instead of being established by one historical founder 96 burley states that india s religio cultural heritage is complicated and likely experienced a non linear development 97 sankhya is not necessarily non vedic nor pre vedic nor a reaction to brahmanic hegemony states burley 97 it is most plausibly in its origins a lineage that grew and evolved from a combination of ascetic traditions and vedic guru teacher and disciples burley suggests the link between samkhya and yoga as likely the root of this evolutionary origin during the vedic era of india 97 according to van buitenen various ideas on yoga and meditation developed in the interaction between various sramanas and ascetic groups 75 rig vedic speculations edit the earliest mention of dualism is in the rigveda a text that was compiled in the late second millennium bce 98 in various chapters nasadiya sukta hymn of non eternity origin of universe there was neither non existence nor existence then neither the realm of space nor the sky which is beyond what stirred where in whose protection there was neither death nor immortality then no distinguishing sign of night nor of day that one breathed windless by its own impulse other than that there was nothing beyond darkness there was at first by darkness hidden without distinctive marks this all was water that which becoming by the void was covered that one by force of heat came into being who really knows who will here proclaim it whence was it produced whence is this creation gods came afterwards with the creation of this universe who then knows whence it has arisen whether god s will created it or whether he was mute perhaps it formed itself or perhaps it did not only he who is its overseer in highest heaven knows only he knows or perhaps he does not know rigveda 10 129 abridged tr kramer christian 99 the hymn as mandala 10 in general is late within the rigveda samhita and expresses thought more typical of later vedantic philosophy 100 at a mythical level dualism is found in the indra vritra myth of chapter 1 32 of the rigveda 101 enumeration the etymological root of the word samkhya is found in numerous chapters of the rigveda such as 1 164 10 90 and 10 129 102 according to larson it is likely that in the oldest period these enumerations were occasionally also applied in the context of meditation themes and religious cosmology such as in the hymns of 1 164 riddle hymns and 10 129 nasadiya hymns 103 however these hymns present only the outline of ideas not specific samkhya theories and these theories developed in a much later period 103 the riddle hymns of the rigveda famous for their numerous enumerations structural language symmetry within the verses and the chapter enigmatic word play with anagrams that symbolically portray parallelism in rituals and the cosmos nature and the inner life of man 104 this hymn includes enumeration counting as well as a series of dual concepts cited by early upanishads for example the hymns 1 164 2 1 164 3 mention seven multiple times which in the context of other chapters of rigveda have been interpreted as referring to both seven priests at a ritual and seven constellations in the sky the entire hymn is a riddle that paints a ritual as well as the sun moon earth three seasons the transitory nature of living beings the passage of time and spirit 104 105 seven to the one wheeled chariot yoke the courser bearing seven names the single courser draws it three naved the wheel is sound and undecaying whereon are resting all these worlds of being the seven priests who on the seven wheeled car are mounted have horses seven in tale who draw them onward seven sisters utter songs of praise together in whom the names of the seven cows are treasured who hath beheld him as he sun agni sprang to being seen how the boneless one spirit supports the bony body where is the blood of earth the life the spirit who will approach the one who knows to ask this rigveda 1 164 2 1 164 4 106 the chapter 1 164 asks a number of metaphysical questions such as what is the one in the form of the unborn that created the six realms of the world 107 108 dualistic philosophical speculations then follow in chapter 1 164 of the rigveda particularly in the well studied allegory of two birds hymn 1 164 20 1 164 22 a hymn that is referred to in the mundaka upanishad and other texts 104 109 110 the two birds in this hymn have been interpreted to mean various forms of dualism the sun and the moon the two seekers of different kinds of knowledge and the body and the atman 111 112 two birds with fair wings knit with bonds of friendship embrace the same tree one of the twain eats the sweet fig the other not eating keeps watch where those fine birds hymn ceaselessly their portion of life eternal and the sacred synods there is the universe s mighty keeper who wise hath entered into me the simple the tree on which the fine birds eat the sweetness where they all rest and procreate their offspring upon its top they say the fig is sweetest he who does not know the father will not reach it rigveda 1 164 20 1 164 22 106 the emphasis of duality between existence sat and non existence asat in the nasadiya sukta of the rigveda is similar to the vyakta avyakta manifest unmanifest polarity in samkhya the hymns about puruṣa may also have had some influence on samkhya 113 the samkhya notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to the notion of hiranyagarbha which appears in both the rigveda and the shvetashvatara upanishad 114 early upanishads edit higher than the senses stand the objects of senses higher than objects of senses stands mind higher than mind stands intellect higher than intellect stands the great self higher than the great self stands avyaktam unmenifested or indistinctive higher than avyaktam stands purusha higher than this there is nothing he is the final goal and the highest point in all beings dwells this purusha as atman essence invisible concealed he is only seen by the keenest thought by the sublest of those thinkers who see into the subtle katha upanishad 3 10 13 115 116 the oldest of the major upanishads c 900 600 bce contain speculations along the lines of classical samkhya philosophy 87 the concept of ahamkara was traced back by van buitenen to chapters 1 2 and 1 4 of the brihadaranyaka upanishad and chapter 7 25 of the chāndogya upaniṣad where it is a cosmic entity and not a psychological notion 87 114 satkaryavada the theory of causation in samkhya may in part be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of sat being and describe creation from it the idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both chandogya and shvetashvatara upanishads 117 yajnavalkya s exposition on the self in the brihadaranyaka upanishad and the dialogue between uddalaka aruni and his son svetaketu in the chandogya upanishad represent a more developed notion of the essence of man atman as pure subjectivity i e the knower who is himself unknowable the seer who cannot be seen and as pure conscious discovered by means of speculations or enumerations 118 according to larson it seems quite likely that both the monistic trends in indian thought and the dualistic samkhya could have developed out of these ancient speculations 119 according to larson the enumeration of tattvas in samkhya is also found in taittiriya upanishad aitareya upanishad and yajnavalkya maitri dialogue in the brihadaranyaka upanishad 120 proto classical samkhya edit buddhist and jainist influences edit jainism was reorganised in the 9th century bce while buddhism had developed in eastern india by the 5th century bce it is probable that these schools of thought and the earliest schools of samkhya influenced each other 121 according to burely there is no evidence that a systematic samkhya philosophy existed prior to the founding of buddhism and jainism sometime in the 5th or 4th century bce 122 a prominent similarity between buddhism and samkhya is the greater emphasis on suffering dukkha as the foundation for their respective soteriological theories than other indian philosophies 121 however suffering appears central to samkhya in its later literature which likely suggests a buddhist influence eliade however presents the alternate theory that samkhya and buddhism developed their soteriological theories over time benefiting from their mutual influence 121 likewise the jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls jiva may have influenced the samkhya concept of multiple purușas however hermann jacobi an indologist argued that there is little reason to assume that samkhya notion of purușas was solely dependent on the notion of jiva in jainism it is more likely that samkhya was influenced by many ancient theories of soul in various vedic and non vedic schools 121 this declared to you is the yoga of the wisdom of samkhya hear now of the integrated wisdom with which partha you will cast off the bonds of karma bhagavad gita 2 39 123 larson bhattacharya and potter state it to be likely that early samkhya doctrines found in oldest upanishads c 700 800 bce provided the contextual foundations and influenced buddhist and jaina doctrines and these became contemporaneous sibling intellectual movements with samkhya and other schools of hindu philosophy 124 this is evidenced for example by the references to samkhya in ancient and medieval era jaina literature 125 middle upanishads edit samkhya and yoga are mentioned together for first time in chapter 6 13 of the shvetashvatra upanishad 126 as samkhya yoga adhigamya literally to be understood by proper reasoning and spiritual discipline 127 the katha upanishad 5th 1st c bce in verses 3 10 13 and 6 7 11 describes a concept of puruṣa and other concepts also found in later samkhya 128 the shvetashvatara upanishad in chapter 6 13 describes samkhya with yoga philosophy and bhagavad gita in book 2 provides axiological implications of samkhya therewith providing textual evidence of samkhyan terminology and concepts 126 katha upanishad conceives the puruṣa cosmic spirit consciousness as same as the individual soul ātman self 128 129 bhagavad gita and mahabharata edit the bhagavad gita identifies samkhya with understanding or knowledge 130 the three gunas are also mentioned in the gita though they are not used in the same sense as in classical samkhya 131 the gita integrates samkhya thought with the devotion bhakti of theistic schools and the impersonal brahman of vedanta 132 the mokshadharma chapter of ...
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