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oes not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed july 2012 learn how and when to remove this message the samkhya system is based on sat kārya vāda or the theory of causation according to satkāryavāda the effect is pre existent in the cause there is only an apparent or illusory change in the makeup of the cause and not a material one when it becomes effect since effects cannot come from nothing the original cause or ground of everything is seen as prakṛti 69 more specifically samkhya system follows the prakṛti parināma vāda parināma denotes that the effect is a real transformation of the cause the cause under consideration here is prakṛti or more precisely moola prakṛti primordial matter the samkhya system is therefore an exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter in evolution prakṛti is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects evolution is followed by dissolution in dissolution the physical existence all the worldly objects mingle back into prakṛti which now remains as the undifferentiated primordial substance this is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow each other but this theory is very different from the modern theories of science in the sense that prakṛti evolves for each jiva separately giving individual bodies and minds to each and after liberation these elements of prakṛti merges into the moola prakṛti another uniqueness of sāmkhya is that not only physical entities but even mind ego and intelligence are regarded as forms of unconsciousness quite distinct from pure consciousness samkhya theorizes that prakṛti is the source of the perceived world of becoming it is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles the evolution itself is possible because prakṛti is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands or gunas sattva rajas and tamas in a state of equilibrium of three gunas when the three together are one unmanifest prakṛti which is unknowable a guṇa is an entity that can change either increase or decrease therefore pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any modification the evolution obeys causality relationships with primal nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation the cause and effect theory of samkhya is called satkārya vāda theory of existent causes and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness all evolution is simply the transformation of primal nature from one form to another samkhya cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe the relationship between puruṣa and prakṛti is crucial to patanjali s yoga system the strands of samkhya thought can be traced back to the vedic speculation of creation it is also frequently mentioned in the mahabharata and yogavasishta historical development edit larson 1969 discerns four basic periods in the development of sankhya 70 8 9th c bce 5th c bce ancient speculations including speculative vedic hymns and the oldest prose upanishads 4th c bce 1st c ce proto sankhya speculations as found in the middle upanishads the buddhacarita the bhagavad gita and the mahabharata 1st 10 11th c ce classical sankhya 15th 17th c renaissance of later sankhya larson 1987 discerns three phases of development of the term sankhya relating to three different meanings 71 vedic period and the mauryan empire c 1500 bce until the 4th and 3rd c bce 71 relating to number enumeration or calculation 71 intellectual inquiry was frequently cast in the format of elaborate enumerations 71 references to samkhya do not denote integrated systems of thought 22 8th 7th c bce first centuries ce 22 as a masculine noun referring to someone who calculates enumerates or discriminates properly or correctly 71 proto samkhya 72 related to the early ascetic traditions reflected in the moksadharma section of the mahabharata the bhagavad gita and the cosmological speculations of the puranas 22 the notion of samkhya becomes related to methods of reasoning that result in liberating knowledge vidya jnana viveka that end the cycle of dukkha and rebirth 73 during this period sankhya becomes explicitly related to meditation spiritual practices and religious cosmology 23 and is primarily a methodology for attaining liberation and appears to allow for a great variety of philosophical formulations 23 according to larson sankhya means in the upanishads and the epic simply the way of salvation by knowledge 23 as such it contains psychological analyses of experience that become dominant motifs in jain and buddhist meditation contexts 74 typical samkhya terminology and issues develop 74 while yoga emphasizes asanas breathing and ascetic practices samkhya is concerned with intellectual analyses and proper discernment 74 but samkhya reasonong is not really differentiated from yoga 72 according to van buitenen these ideas developed in the interaction between various sramanas and ascetic groups 75 numerous ancient teachers are named in the various texts including kapila and pancasikha 76 1st c bce first centuries ce 72 as a neuter term referring to the beginning of a technical philosophical system 77 pre karika sankhya ca 100 bce 200 ce 78 this period ends with ishvara krishna s iśvarakṛṣṇa 350 ce samkhyakarika 72 according to larson the shift of samkhya from speculations to the normative conceptualization hints but does not conclusively prove that samkhya may be the oldest of the indian technical philosophical schools e g nyaya vaisheshika and buddhist ontology one that evolved over time and influenced the technical aspects of buddhism and jainism 79 note 2 ancient speculations edit in the beginning this was self alone in the shape of a person puruṣa he looking around saw nothing but his self atman he first said this is i therefore he became i by name brihadaranyaka upanishad 1 4 1 81 82 the early speculative phase took place in the first half of the first millennium bce 70 when ascetic spirituality and monastic sramana and yati traditions came into vogue in india and ancient scholars combined enumerated set s of principles with a methodology of reasoning that results in spiritual knowledge vidya jnana viveka 73 these early non samkhya speculations and proto samkhya ideas are visible in earlier hindu scriptures such as the vedas note 3 early upanishads such as the chandogya upanishad 73 note 4 and the bhagavad gita 87 70 however these early speculations and proto samkhya ideas had not distilled and congealed into a distinct complete philosophy 88 ascetic origins edit while some earlier scholars have argued for upanishadic origins of the sankhya tradition note 4 and the upanishads contain dualistic speculations which may have influenced proto sankhya 87 89 other scholars have noted the dissimilarities of samkhya with the vedic tradition as early as 1898 richard karl von garbe a german professor of philosophy and indologist wrote in 1898 the origin of the sankhya system appears in the proper light only when we understand that in those regions of india which were little influenced by brahmanism political connotation given by the christian missionary the first attempt had been made to solve the riddles of the world and of our existence merely by means of reason for the sankhya philosophy is in its essence not only atheistic but also inimical to the veda 90 dandekar similarly wrote in 1968 the origin of the sankhya is to be traced to the pre vedic non aryan thought complex 91 heinrich zimmer states that samkhya has non aryan origins 21 note 1 anthony warder 1994 first ed 1967 writes that the sankhya and mīmāṃsā schools appear to have been established before the sramana traditions in india c 500 bce and he finds that samkhya represents a relatively free development of speculation among the brahmans independent of the vedic revelation 93 warder writes sankhya has indeed been suggested to be non brahmanical and even anti vedic in origin but there is no tangible evidence for that except that it is very different than most vedic speculation but that is itself quite inconclusive speculations in the direction of the samkhya can be found in the early upanishads 94 according to ruzsa in 2006 sāṅkhya has a very long history its roots go deeper than textual traditions allow us to see 95 stating that sāṅkhya likely grew out of speculations rooted in cosmic dualism and introspective meditational practice 95 the dualism is rooted in agricultural concepts of the union of the male sky god and the female earth goddess the union of the spiritual immaterial lordly immobile fertilizer represented as the śiva liṅgam or phallus and of the active fertile powerful but subservient material principle śakti or power often as the horrible dark lady kālī 95 in contrast the ascetic and meditative yoga practice in contrast aimed at overcoming the limitations of the natural body and achieving perfect stillness of the mind a combination of these views may have resulted in the concept of the puruṣa the unchanging immaterial conscious essence contrasted with prakṛti the material principle that produces not only the external world and the body but also the changing and externally determined aspects of the human mind such as the intellect ego internal and external perceptual organs 95 according to ruzsa both the agrarian theology of śiva śakti sky earth and the tradition of yoga meditation do not appear to be rooted in the vedas not surprisingly classical sāṅkhya is remarkably independent of orthodox brahmanic traditions including the vedas sāṅkhya is silent about the vedas about their guardians the brahmins and for that matter about the whole caste system and about the vedic gods and it is slightly unfavorable towards the animal sacrifices that characterized the ancient vedic religion but all our early sources for the history of sāṅkhya belong to the vedic tradition and it is thus reasonable to suppose that we do not see in them the full development of the sāṅkhya system but rather occasional glimpses of its development as it gained gradual acceptance in the brahmanic fold 95 burley argues for an ontegenetic or incremental development of samkhya instead of being established by one historical founder 96 burley states that india s religio cultural heritage is complicated and likely experienced a non linear development 97 sankhya is not necessarily non vedic nor pre vedic nor a reaction to brahmanic hegemony states burley 97 it is most plausibly in its origins a lineage that grew and evolved from a combination of ascetic traditions and vedic guru teacher and disciples burley suggests the link between samkhya and yoga as likely the root of this evolutionary origin during the vedic era of india 97 according to van buitenen various ideas on yoga and meditation developed in the interaction between various sramanas and ascetic groups 75 rig vedic speculations edit the earliest mention of dualism is in the rigveda a text that was compiled in the late second millennium bce 98 in various chapters nasadiya sukta hymn of non eternity origin of universe there was neither non existence nor existence then neither the realm of space nor the sky which is beyond what stirred where in whose protection there was neither death nor immortality then no distinguishing sign of night nor of day that one breathed windless by its own impulse other than that there was nothing beyond darkness there was at first by darkness hidden without distinctive marks this all was water that which becoming by the void was covered that one by force of heat came into being who really knows who will here proclaim it whence was it produced whence is this creation gods came afterwards with the creation of this universe who then knows whence it has arisen whether god s will created it or whether he was mute perhaps it formed itself or perhaps it did not only he who is its overseer in highest heaven knows only he knows or perhaps he does not know rigveda 10 129 abridged tr kramer christian 99 the hymn as mandala 10 in general is late within the rigveda samhita and expresses thought more typical of later vedantic philosophy 100 at a mythical level dualism is found in the indra vritra myth of chapter 1 32 of the rigveda 101 enumeration the etymological root of the word samkhya is found in numerous chapters of the rigveda such as 1 164 10 90 and 10 129 102 according to larson it is likely that in the oldest period these enumerations were occasionally also applied in the context of meditation themes and religious cosmology such as in the hymns of 1 164 riddle hymns and 10 129 nasadiya hymns 103 however these hymns present only the outline of ideas not specific samkhya theories and these theories developed in a much later period 103 the riddle hymns of the rigveda famous for their numerous enumerations structural language symmetry within the verses and the chapter enigmatic word play with anagrams that symbolically portray parallelism in rituals and the cosmos nature and the inner life of man 104 this hymn includes enumeration counting as well as a series of dual concepts cited by early upanishads for example the hymns 1 164 2 1 164 3 mention seven multiple times which in the context of other chapters of rigveda have been interpreted as referring to both seven priests at a ritual and seven constellations in the sky the entire hymn is a riddle that paints a ritual as well as the sun moon earth three seasons the transitory nature of living beings the passage of time and spirit 104 105 seven to the one wheeled chariot yoke the courser bearing seven names the single courser draws it three naved the wheel is sound and undecaying whereon are resting all these worlds of being the seven priests who on the seven wheeled car are mounted have horses seven in tale who draw them onward seven sisters utter songs of praise together in whom the names of the seven cows are treasured who hath beheld him as he sun agni sprang to being seen how the boneless one spirit supports the bony body where is the blood of earth the life the spirit who will approach the one who knows to ask this rigveda 1 164 2 1 164 4 106 the chapter 1 164 asks a number of metaphysical questions such as what is the one in the form of the unborn that created the six realms of the world 107 108 dualistic philosophical speculations then follow in chapter 1 164 of the rigveda particularly in the well studied allegory of two birds hymn 1 164 20 1 164 22 a hymn that is referred to in the mundaka upanishad and other texts 104 109 110 the two birds in this hymn have been interpreted to mean various forms of dualism the sun and the moon the two seekers of different kinds of knowledge and the body and the atman 111 112 two birds with fair wings knit with bonds of friendship embrace the same tree one of the twain eats the sweet fig the other not eating keeps watch where those fine birds hym...
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