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switches are switched data will be lost if within a single polling interval two switches are pressed or a switch is pressed released and pressed again this polling can be done by a specialized processor in the device to prevent burdening the main cpu 2 when a new symbol has been entered the device typically sends an interrupt in a specialized format so that the cpu can read it for devices with only a few switches such as the buttons on a joystick the status of each can be encoded as bits usually 0 for released and 1 for pressed in a single word this is useful when combinations of key presses are meaningful and is sometimes used for passing the status of modifier keys on a keyboard such as shift and control but it does not scale to support more keys than the number of bits in a single byte or word devices with many switches such as a computer keyboard usually arrange these switches in a scan matrix with the individual switches on the intersections of x and y lines when a switch is pressed it connects the corresponding x and y lines together polling often called scanning in this case is done by activating each x line in sequence and detecting which y lines then have a signal thus which keys are pressed when the keyboard processor detects that a key has changed state it sends a signal to the cpu indicating the scan code of the key and its new state the symbol is then encoded or converted into a number based on the status of modifier keys and the desired character encoding a custom encoding can be used for a specific application with no loss of data however using a standard encoding such as ascii is problematic if a symbol such as ß needs to be converted but is not in the standard it is estimated that in the year 1986 less than 1 of the world s technological capacity to store information was digital and in 2007 it was already 94 3 the year 2002 is assumed to be the year when humankind was able to store more information in digital than in analog format the beginning of the digital age 4 5 states edit the 3 states of data digital data come in these three states data at rest data in transit and data in use 6 7 the confidentiality integrity and availability have to be managed during the entire lifecycle from birth to the destruction of the data 8 data at rest edit data at rest vs data in use data at rest in information technology means data that is housed physically on computer data storage in any digital form e g cloud storage file hosting services databases data warehouses spreadsheets archives tapes off site or cloud backups mobile devices etc data at rest includes both structured and unstructured data 9 this type of data is subject to threats from hackers and other malicious threats to gain access to the data digitally or physical theft of the data storage media to prevent this data from being accessed modified or stolen organizations will often employ security protection measures such as password protection data encryption or a combination of both the security options used for this type of data are broadly referred to as data at rest protection darp 10 definitions include all data in computer storage while excluding data that is traversing a network or temporarily residing in computer memory to be read or updated 11 all data in storage but excludes any data that frequently traverses the network or that which resides in temporary memory data at rest includes but is not limited to archived data data which is not accessed or changed frequently files stored on hard drives usb thumb drives files stored on backup tape and disks and also files stored off site or on a storage area network san 12 while it is generally accepted that archive data i e which never changes regardless of its storage medium is data at rest and active data subject to constant or frequent change is data in use inactive data could be taken to mean data which may change but infrequently the imprecise nature of terms such as constant and frequent means that some stored data cannot be comprehensively defined as either data at rest or in use these definitions could be taken to assume that data at rest is a superset of data in use however data in use subject to frequent change has distinct processing requirements from data at rest whether completely static or subject to occasional change security edit because of its nature data at rest is of increasing concern to businesses government agencies and other institutions 11 mobile devices are often subject to specific security protocols to protect data at rest from unauthorized access when lost or stolen 13 and there is an increasing recognition that database management systems and file servers should also be considered as at risk 14 the longer data is left unused in storage the more likely it might be retrieved by unauthorized individuals outside the network data encryption which prevents data visibility in the event of its unauthorized access or theft is commonly used to protect data in motion and increasingly promoted for protecting data at rest 15 the encryption of data at rest should only include strong encryption methods such as aes or rsa encrypted data should remain encrypted when access controls such as usernames and passwords fail increasing encryption on multiple levels is recommended cryptography can be implemented on the database housing the data and on the physical storage where the databases are stored data encryption keys should be updated on a regular basis encryption keys should be stored separately from the data encryption also enables crypto shredding at the end of the data or hardware lifecycle periodic auditing of sensitive data should be part of policy and should occur on scheduled occurrences finally only store the minimum possible amount of sensitive data 16 tokenization is a non mathematical approach to protecting data at rest that replaces sensitive data with non sensitive substitutes referred to as tokens which have no extrinsic or exploitable meaning or value this process does not alter the type or length of data which means it can be processed by legacy systems such as databases that may be sensitive to data length and type tokens require significantly less computational resources to process and less storage space in databases than traditionally encrypted data this is achieved by keeping specific data fully or partially visible for processing and analytics while sensitive information is kept hidden lower processing and storage requirements make tokenization an ideal method of securing data at rest in systems that manage large volumes of data a further method of preventing unwanted access to data at rest is the use of data federation 17 especially when data is distributed globally e g in offshore archives an example of this would be a european organisation which stores its archived data off site in the us under the terms of the usa patriot act 18 the american authorities can demand access to all data physically stored within its boundaries even if it includes personal information on european citizens with no connections to the us data encryption alone cannot be used to prevent this as the authorities have the right to demand decrypted information a data federation policy which retains personal citizen information with no foreign connections within its country of origin separate from information which is either not personal or is relevant to offshore authorities is one option to address this concern however data stored in foreign countries can be accessed using legislation in the cloud act data in use edit data in use is an information technology term referring to active data which is stored in a non persistent digital state or volatile memory typically in computer random access memory ram cpu caches or cpu registers 19 data in use has also been taken to mean active data in the context of being in a database or being manipulated by an application for example some enterprise encryption gateway solutions for the cloud claim to encrypt data at rest data in transit and data in use 20 some cloud software as a service saas providers refer to data in use as any data currently being processed by applications as the cpu and memory are utilized 21 security edit because of its nature data in use is of increasing concern to businesses government agencies and other institutions data in use or memory can contain sensitive data including digital certificates encryption keys intellectual property software algorithms design data and personally identifiable information compromising data in use enables access to encrypted data at rest and data in motion for example someone with access to random access memory can parse that memory to locate the encryption key for data at rest once they have obtained that encryption key they can decrypt encrypted data at rest threats to data in use can come in the form of cold boot attacks malicious hardware devices rootkits and bootkits encryption which prevents data visibility in the event of its unauthorized access or theft is commonly used to protect data in motion and data at rest and increasingly recognized as an optimal method for protecting data in use there have been multiple projects to encrypt memory microsoft xbox systems are designed to provide memory encryption and the company privatecore presently has a commercial software product vcage to provide attestation along with full memory encryption for x86 servers 22 several papers have been published highlighting the availability of security enhanced x86 and arm commodity processors 19 23 in that work an arm cortex a8 processor is used as the substrate on which a full memory encryption solution is built process segments for example stack code or heap can be encrypted individually or in composition this work marks the first full memory encryption implementation on a mobile general purpose commodity processor the system provides both confidentiality and integrity protections of code and data which are encrypted everywhere outside the cpu boundary for x86 systems amd has a secure memory encryption sme feature introduced in 2017 with epyc 24 intel has promised to deliver its total memory encryption tme feature in an upcoming cpu 25 26 operating system kernel patches such as tresor and loop amnesia modify the operating system so that cpu registers can be used to store encryption keys and avoid holding encryption keys in ram while this approach is not general purpose and does not protect all data in use it does protect against cold boot attacks encryption keys are held inside the cpu rather than in ram so that data at rest encryption keys are protected against attacks that might compromise encryption keys in memory enclaves enable an enclave to be secured with encryption in ram so that enclave data is encrypted while in ram but available as clear text inside the cpu and cpu cache intel corporation has introduced the concept of enclaves as part of its software guard extensions intel revealed an architecture combining software and cpu hardware in technical papers published in 2013 27 several cryptographic tools including secure multi party computation and homomorphic encryption allow for the private computation of data on untrusted systems data in use could be operated upon while encrypted and never exposed to the system doing the processing data in transit edit data in transit also referred to as data in motion 28 and data in flight 29 is data en route between source and destination typically on a computer network data in transit can be separated into two categories information that flows over the public or untrusted network such as the internet and data that flows in the confines of a private network such as a corporate or enterprise local area network lan 30 various types of data which can be visualized through a computer device in computing edit data within a computer in most cases moves as parallel data data moving to or from a computer in most cases moves as serial data data sourced from an analog device such as a temperature sensor may be converted to digital using an analog to digital converter data representing quantities characters or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer are stored and recorded on magnetic optical electronic or mechanical recording media and transmitted in the form of digital electrical or optical signals 31 data pass in and out of computers via peripheral devices physical computer memory elements consist of an address and a byte word of data storage digital data are often stored in relational databases like tables or sql databases and can generally be represented as abstract key value pairs data can be organized in many different types of data structures including arrays graphs and objects data structures can store data of many different types including numbers strings and even other data structures characteristics edit metadata helps translate data to information metadata is data about the data metadata may be implied specified or given data relating to physical events or processes will have a temporal component this temporal component may be implied this is the case when a device such as a temperature logger receives data from a temperature sensor when the temperature is received it is assumed that the data has a temporal reference of now so the device records the date time and temperature together when the data logger communicates temperatures it must also report the date and time as metadata for each temperature reading fundamentally computers follow a sequence of instructions they are given in the form of data a set of instructions to perform a given task or tasks is called a program a program is data in the form of coded instructions to control the operation of a computer or other machine 32 in the nominal case the program as executed by the computer will consist of machine code the elements of storage manipulated by the program but not actually executed by the central processing unit cpu are also data at its most essential a single datum is a value stored at a specific location therefore it is possible for computer programs to operate on other computer programs by manipulating their programmatic data to store data bytes in a file they have to be serialized in a file format typically programs are stored in special file types different from those used for other data executable files contain programs all other files are also data files however executable files may also contain data used by the program which is built into the program in particular some executable files have a data segment which nominally contains constants and initial values for variables both of which can be considered data the line between program and data can become blurry an interpreter for example is a program the input data to an interpreter is itself a program just not one expressed in native machine language in many cases the interpreted program will be a human readable text file which is mani...
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