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ssible on an industrial scale 61 the soviet br 1 test reactor achieved a breeding ratio of 2 5 under non commercial conditions 62 reprocessing edit fission of the nuclear fuel in any reactor unavoidably produces neutron absorbing fission products the fertile material from a breeder reactor then needs to be reprocessed to remove those neutron poisons this step is required to fully utilize the ability to breed as much or more fuel than is consumed all reprocessing can present a proliferation concern since it can extract weapons usable material from spent fuel 63 the most common reprocessing technique purex presents a particular concern since it was expressly designed to separate plutonium early proposals for the breeder reactor fuel cycle posed an even greater proliferation concern because they would use purex to separate plutonium in a highly attractive isotopic form for use in nuclear weapons 64 65 several countries are developing reprocessing methods that do not separate the plutonium from the other actinides for instance the non water based pyrometallurgical electrowinning process when used to reprocess fuel from an integral fast reactor leaves large amounts of radioactive actinides in the reactor fuel 29 more conventional water based reprocessing systems include sanex unex diamex coex and truex and proposals to combine purex with those and other co processes all these systems have moderately better proliferation resistance than purex though their adoption rate is low 66 67 68 in the thorium cycle thorium 232 breeds by converting first to protactinium 233 which then decays to uranium 233 if the protactinium remains in the reactor small amounts of uranium 232 are also produced which has the strong gamma emitter thallium 208 in its decay chain similar to uranium fueled designs the longer the fuel and fertile material remain in the reactor the more of these undesirable elements build up in the envisioned commercial thorium reactors high levels of uranium 232 would be allowed to accumulate leading to extremely high gamma radiation doses from any uranium derived from thorium these gamma rays complicate the safe handling of a weapon and the design of its electronics this explains why uranium 233 has never been pursued for weapons beyond proof of concept demonstrations 69 while the thorium cycle may be proliferation resistant with regard to uranium 233 extraction from fuel because of the presence of uranium 232 it poses a proliferation risk from an alternate route of uranium 233 extraction which involves chemically extracting protactinium 233 and allowing it to decay to pure uranium 233 outside of the reactor this process is an obvious chemical operation which is not required for normal operation of these reactor designs but it could feasibly happen beyond the oversight of organizations such as the international atomic energy agency iaea and thus must be safeguarded against 70 production edit like many aspects of nuclear power fast breeder reactors have been subject to much controversy over the years in 2010 the international panel on fissile materials said after six decades and the expenditure of the equivalent of tens of billions of dollars the promise of breeder reactors remains largely unfulfilled and efforts to commercialize them have been steadily cut back in most countries in germany the united kingdom and the united states breeder reactor development programs have been abandoned 71 72 the rationale for pursuing breeder reactors sometimes explicit and sometimes implicit was based on the following key assumptions 72 73 it was expected that uranium would be scarce and high grade deposits would quickly become depleted if fission power were deployed on a large scale the reality however is that since the end of the cold war uranium has been much cheaper and more abundant than early designers expected 74 breeder reactors were expected to become economically competitive with light water reactors in 2010 thomas b cochran and colleagues reported that demonstration sodium cooled fast reactors had typically cost more than twice as much per kilowatt of generating capacity as similarly sized water cooled reactors they noted that this cost gap might narrow with production but wrote that few experts anticipated a capital cost premium below 25 75 it was thought that breeder reactors could be as safe and reliable as light water reactors but safety issues are cited as a concern with fast reactors that use a sodium coolant where a leak could lead to a sodium fire it was expected that the proliferation risks posed by breeders and their closed fuel cycle in which plutonium would be recycled could be managed but since plutonium breeding reactors produce plutonium from u238 and thorium reactors produce fissile u233 from thorium all breeding cycles could theoretically pose proliferation risks 76 however u 232 which is always present in u 233 produced in breeder reactors is a strong gamma emitter via its daughter products and would make weapon handling extremely hazardous and the weapon easy to detect 77 the 2013 documentary pandora s promise presents the integral fast reactor as an alternative to fossil fuel power with commentary from former argonne managers len koch and chuck till 78 recycling nevertheless leaves radioactive wastes requiring disposal including long lived fission products and wastes from fuel processing 16 according to the movie one pound of uranium provides as much energy as 5 000 barrels of oil 79 notable reactors edit oak ridge s molten salt reactor experiment tested technology for later molten salt breeder designs it was not a breeder and did not demonstrate the thorium 232 uranium 233 breeding cycle 80 notable breeder reactors and related experiments 21 81 82 83 84 reactor country when built started shut down net electrical output mwe gross electrical output mwe thermal output mwt reported electrical rating basis unspecified rating source and year capacity factor number of coolant leaks neutron temperature coolant reactor class bn 800 russia 2015 operating 820 885 2100 iaea 2025 85 73 4 fast sodium prototype commercial gen3 bn 600 soviet union 1981 operating 560 600 1470 iaea 2025 85 74 2 27 fast sodium prototype commercial gen2 cfr 600 china 2017 commissioning 2023 642 682 1882 iaea 2025 85 34 27 fast sodium commercial 86 pfbr india 2004 operating 1253 500 fast sodium prototype commercial gen3 phénix france 1973 grid connection 87 2010 87 88 563 233 design 130 final 40 5 31 fast sodium prototype bn 350 soviet union 1973 1999 750 350 design 52 final 43 15 fast sodium prototype pfr uk 1976 1994 650 234 26 9 20 fast sodium prototype dfr uk 1962 1977 65 14 design 11 final 34 7 fast nak test china experimental fast reactor china 2012 operating 65 20 design 22 final 40 8 fast sodium test 89 fbtr india 1985 operating 40 13 6 fast sodium test ebr 2 us 1964 1994 62 5 19 fast sodium experimental test fftf us 1982 1993 400 0 1 fast sodium test jōyō japan 1977 2007 suspended restart planned as of february 2026 90 150 0 fast sodium test rapsodie france 1967 1983 40 0 2 fast sodium test ebr 1 us 1951 1963 91 1 4 0 2 fast nak first power reactor monju japan 1995 2017 714 246 trial only 1 fast sodium prototype fermi 1 us 1963 1972 200 66 fast sodium prototype knk ii germany 1977 1991 58 18 design 17 final 17 1 21 fast sodium research test msre us 1965 1969 7 4 0 epithermal molten salt flibe test shippingport us 1977 as breeder 1982 236 60 thermal light water experimental core3 superphénix france 1985 1998 3000 1200 7 9 7 fast sodium prototype commercial gen2 snr 300 germany 1985 completed 1991 cancelled 22 327 non nuclear tests only fast sodium prototype commercial clementine us 1946 1952 0 025 0 fast mercury world s first fast reactor 21 the soviet union constructed a series of fast reactors the first being mercury cooled and fueled with plutonium metal and the later plants sodium cooled and fueled with plutonium oxide br 1 1955 was 100w thermal was followed by br 2 at 100 kw and then the 5 mw br 5 62 bor 60 first criticality 1969 was 60 mw with construction started in 1965 92 future plants edit india edit india has been developing fast breeder reactors as part of its three stage nuclear power programme india s prototype fast breeder reactor at kalpakkam reached first criticality on 6 april 2026 its uranium plutonium fuel cycle is separate from the programme s longer term thorium plans 93 bhavini an indian nuclear power company was established in 2003 to construct commission and operate all stage ii fast breeder reactors outlined in india s three stage nuclear power programme to advance these plans the fbr 600 is a pool type sodium cooled reactor with a rating of 600 mwe china edit the chinese experimental fast reactor is a 65 mw thermal 20 mw electric sodium cooled pool type reactor with a 30 year design lifetime and a target burnup of 100 mwd kg china s atomic energy authority rates the china experimental fast reactor at 65 mw thermal and 20 mw electrical it first reached criticality in 2010 and supplied electricity to the grid in 2011 94 china initiated a research and development project in thorium molten salt thermal breeder reactor technology liquid fluoride thorium reactor formally announced at the chinese academy of sciences annual conference in 2011 its ultimate target was to investigate and develop a thorium based molten salt nuclear system over about 20 years 95 96 in november 2025 the chinese academy of sciences reported thorium to uranium fuel conversion in an experimental molten salt reactor built by its shanghai institute of applied physics the institute described a goal of demonstrating a 100 megawatt project by 2035 97 south korea edit south korea is developing a design for a standardized modular fbr for export to complement the standardized pressurized water reactors and canadian developed candu reactors already built there 98 but has not yet committed to building a prototype a cutaway model of the bn 600 reactor superseded by the bn 800 reactor family construction of the bn 800 reactor russia edit russia has a plan for increasing its fleet of fast breeder reactors significantly a bn 800 reactor 800 mwe at beloyarsk was completed in 2012 succeeding a smaller bn 600 99 it reached its full power production in 2016 100 plans for the construction of a larger bn 1200 reactor 1 200 mwe was scheduled for completion in 2018 with two additional bn 1200 reactors built by the end of 2030 101 however in 2015 rosenergoatom postponed construction indefinitely to allow fuel design to be improved after more experience of operating the bn 800 reactor and among cost concerns 102 in january 2026 rosatom reported that preparations had begun for beloyarsk unit 5 using the bn 1200m sodium cooled fast reactor 103 construction of the lead cooled brest od 300 reactor at the siberian chemical combine in seversk began in june 2021 104 103 the brest russian bystry reaktor so svintsovym teplonositelem english fast reactor with lead coolant design is seen as a successor to the bn series and the 300 mwe unit at the scc could be the forerunner to a 1 200 mwe version for wide deployment as a commercial power generation unit the development program is as part of an advanced nuclear technologies federal program 2010 2020 that seeks to exploit fast reactors for uranium efficiency while burning radioactive substances that would otherwise be disposed of as waste its core would measure about 2 3 metres in diameter by 1 1 metres in height and contain 16 tonnes of fuel the unit would be refuelled every year with each fuel element spending five years in total within the core lead coolant temperature would be around 540 c giving a high efficiency of 43 primary heat production of 700 mwt yielding electrical power of 300 mwe the operational lifespan of the unit could be 60 years the design was expected to be completed by nikiet in 2014 for construction between 2016 and 2020 105 in january 2026 rosatom reported that brest od 300 remained under construction and that the metal shell of its central reactor cavity had been installed during 2025 103 japan edit in 2006 the united states france and japan signed an arrangement to research and develop sodium cooled fast reactors in support of the global nuclear energy partnership 106 in 2007 the japanese government selected mitsubishi heavy industries as the core company in fbr development in japan shortly thereafter mitsubishi fbr systems was launched to develop and eventually sell fbr technology 107 a 2024 technical review by mitsubishi heavy industries described the revised japanese roadmap conceptual design and research on a demonstration sodium cooled fast reactor were planned for fiscal 2024 2028 with a decision on basic design and licensing around fiscal 2028 mhi had been selected as the project s lead company in july 2023 108 the marcoule nuclear site in france location of the phénix on the left france edit in 2010 the french government allocated 651 6 million to the commissariat à l énergie atomique to finalize the design of astrid advanced sodium technological reactor for industrial demonstration a 600 mw fourth generation reactor design to be finalized in 2020 109 110 as of 2013 update the uk had shown interest in the prism reactor and was working in concert with france to develop astrid in 2019 cea announced this design would not be built before mid century 111 united states edit assembly of the core of experimental breeder reactor i in idaho united states 1951 kirk sorensen former nasa scientist and chief nuclear technologist at teledyne brown engineering has long been a promoter of thorium fuel cycle and particularly liquid fluoride thorium reactors in 2011 sorensen founded flibe energy a company aimed to develop 20 50 mw lftr reactor designs to power military bases 112 113 114 in october 2010 ge hitachi nuclear energy signed a memorandum of understanding with the operators of the us department of energy s savannah river site which should allow the construction of a demonstration plant based on the company s s prism fast breeder reactor prior to the design receiving full nuclear regulatory commission licensing approval 115 in october 2011 the independent reported that the uk nuclear decommissioning authority nda and senior advisers within the department for energy and climate change decc had asked for technical and financial details of prism partly as a means of reducing the country s plutonium stockpile 116 the traveling wave reactor proposed in a patent by intellectual ventures is a fast breeder reactor designed to not need fuel reprocessing during the decades long lifetime of the reactor the breed burn wave in the twr design does not move from one end of the reactor to the other but gradually from the inside out moreover as the fuel s composition changes through nuclear transmutation fuel rods are continually reshuffled within the core to optimize the neutron flux and fuel 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