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the july revolution in france the november uprising in the congress poland and the ustertag in switzerland the revolutions of 1848 in turn were the most widespread revolutionary wave in european history they included the march revolution french revolution german revolutions the revolutions in the italian states greater poland uprising march unrest revolutions in the austrian empire praieira revolt revolution in luxembourg moldavian revolution wallachian revolution chartism and the young ireland rebellion great power competition edit inspired by the rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s against the outcome of the congress of vienna the italian unification process was precipitated by the revolutions of 1848 it reached completion in 1871 when the papal states were captured and rome was officially designated the capital of the kingdom of italy 49 50 after the franco prussian war of 1870 71 prussia under otto von bismarck brought together almost all the german states excluding the austrian empire luxembourg and liechtenstein into a new german empire bismarck s new empire became the most powerful state in continental europe until 1914 51 52 meanwhile britain had entered an era of splendid isolation avoiding entanglements that had led it into the crimean war in 1854 1856 it concentrated on internal industrial development and political reform and building up its great international holdings the british empire while maintaining by far the world s strongest navy to protect its island home and its many overseas possessions comparison of africa in the years 1880 and 1913 the berlin conference of 1884 which regulated european colonization and trade in africa is usually accepted as the beginning of the scramble for africa in the last quarter of the 19th century there were considerable political rivalries among the empires of the european continent leading to the african continent being partitioned without wars between european nations as late as the 1870s europeans controlled approximately 10 of the african continent with all their territories located near the coasts the most important holdings were angola and mozambique held by portugal the cape colony held by great britain and algeria held by france by 1914 only ethiopia and liberia remained independent of european control with the latter having strong connections to the united states 53 in the spanish american war of 1898 the united states intervened in the cuban war of independence leading it to emerge as the predominant power in the caribbean region 54 and resulting in u s acquisition of spain s pacific possessions it also led to united states involvement in the philippine revolution and later to the philippine american war the banana wars were a series of conflicts that consisted of military occupation police action and intervention by the united states in central america and the caribbean following the end of the spanish american war in 1898 after which the united states proceeded to conduct military interventions in cuba panama nicaragua mexico haiti and the dominican republic world wars edit world war i and aftermath edit main articles world war i and interwar period world war i saw the continent of europe split into two major opposing alliances the allied powers primarily composed of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland the united states france the russian empire italy japan portugal and the many aforementioned balkan states such as the kingdom of serbia and montenegro and the central powers primarily composed of the german empire the austro hungarian empire the ottoman empire and bulgaria though serbia was defeated in the serbian campaign of 1915 and romania joined the allied powers in 1916 only to be defeated in 1917 none of the great powers were knocked out of the war until 1918 the 1917 february revolution in russia replaced the russian empire with the provisional government but continuing discontent with the cost of the war led to the october revolution the creation of the soviet socialist republic and the signing of the treaty of brest litovsk by the new government in march 1918 ending russia s involvement in the war one by one the central powers quit first bulgaria september 29 then the ottoman empire october 31 and the austro hungarian empire november 3 with its allies defeated revolution at home and the military no longer willing to fight kaiser wilhelm abdicated on 9 november and germany signed an armistice on 11 november 1918 ending the war the partitioning of the ottoman empire after the war led to the domination of the middle east by western powers such as britain and france and saw the creation of the modern arab world and the republic of turkey the league of nations mandate granted the french mandate for syria and the lebanon the british mandate for mesopotamia later iraq and the british mandate for palestine later divided into mandatory palestine and the emirate of transjordan 1921 1946 the ottoman empire s possessions in the arabian peninsula became the kingdom of hejaz which the sultanate of nejd today saudi arabia was allowed to annex and the mutawakkilite kingdom of yemen the empire s possessions on the western shores of the persian gulf were variously annexed by saudi arabia al ahsa and qatif or remained british protectorates kuwait bahrain and qatar and became the arab states of the persian gulf the revolutions of 1917 1923 included political unrest and revolts around the world inspired by the success of the russian revolution and the disorder created by the aftermath of world war i in war torn imperial russia the liberal february revolution toppled the monarchy a period of instability followed and the bolsheviks seized power during the october revolution in response to the emerging soviet union anticommunist forces from a broad assortment of ideological factions fought against the bolsheviks particularly by the counter revolutionary white movement and the peasant green armies the various nationalist movements in ukraine after the russian revolution and other would be new states like those in soviet transcaucasia and soviet central asia the anarchist inspired third russian revolution and the tambov rebellion 55 the leninist victories also inspired a surge by world communism the larger german revolution and its offspring like the bavarian soviet republic the neighbouring hungarian revolution and the biennio rosso in italy in addition to various smaller uprisings protests and strikes all of which proved abortive the bolsheviks sought to coordinate this new wave of revolution in the soviet led comintern the rise of fascism edit the conditions of economic hardship caused by the great depression brought about an international surge of social unrest in germany it contributed to the rise of the nazi party which resulted in the demise of the weimar republic and the establishment of the fascist regime nazi germany under the leadership of adolf hitler fascist movements grew in strength elsewhere in europe hungarian fascist gyula gömbös rose to power as prime minister of hungary in 1932 and attempted to entrench his party of national unity throughout the country the fascist iron guard movement in romania soared in political support after 1933 gaining representation in the romanian government and an iron guard member assassinated romanian prime minister ion duca during the 6 february 1934 crisis france faced the greatest domestic political turmoil since the dreyfus affair when the fascist francist movement and multiple far right movements rioted en masse in paris against the french government resulting in major political violence integralists marching in brazil in the americas the brazilian integralists led by plínio salgado claimed as many as 200 000 members although following coup attempts it faced a crackdown from the estado novo of getúlio vargas in 1937 in the 1930s the national socialist movement of chile gained seats in chile s parliament and attempted a coup d état that resulted in the seguro obrero massacre of 1938 world war ii edit main article world war ii world war ii is generally considered to have begun on 1 september 1939 when nazi germany under adolf hitler invaded poland the united kingdom and france subsequently declared war on germany on the 3rd under the molotov ribbentrop pact of august 1939 germany and the soviet union had partitioned poland and marked out their spheres of influence across finland romania and the baltic states from late 1939 to early 1941 in a series of campaigns and treaties germany conquered or controlled much of continental europe and formed the axis alliance with italy and japan along with other countries later on following the onset of campaigns in north africa and east africa and the fall of france in mid 1940 the war continued primarily between the european axis powers and the british empire with war in the balkans the aerial battle of britain the blitz of the uk and the battle of the atlantic on 22 june 1941 germany led the european axis powers in an invasion of the soviet union opening the eastern front the largest land theatre of war in history and trapping the axis powers crucially the german wehrmacht in a war of attrition japan which aimed to dominate asia and the pacific was at war with the republic of china by 1937 in december 1941 japan attacked american and british territories with near simultaneous offensives against southeast asia and the central pacific including an attack on the us fleet at pearl harbor which forced the us to declare war against japan the european axis powers declared war on the us in solidarity japan soon captured much of the western pacific but its advances were halted in 1942 after losing the critical battle of midway later germany and italy were defeated in north africa and at the battle of stalingrad in the soviet union key setbacks in 1943 including a series of german defeats on the eastern front the allied invasions of sicily and the italian mainland and allied offensives in the pacific cost the axis powers their initiative and forced it into strategic retreat on all fronts in 1944 the western allies invaded german occupied france while the soviet union regained its territorial losses and turned towards germany and its allies during 1944 and 1945 japan suffered reversals in mainland asia while the allies crippled the japanese navy and captured key western pacific islands the war in europe concluded with the liberation of german occupied territories and the invasion of germany by the western allies and the soviet union culminating in the fall of berlin to soviet troops hitler s suicide and the german unconditional surrender on 8 may 1945 following the potsdam declaration by the allies on 26 july 1945 and the refusal of japan to surrender on its terms the united states dropped the first atomic bombs on the japanese cities of hiroshima on 6 august and nagasaki on 9 august faced with an imminent invasion of the japanese archipelago the possibility of additional atomic bombings and the soviet entry into the war against japan and its invasion of manchuria japan announced its intention to surrender on 15 august then signed the surrender document on 2 september 1945 cementing total victory in asia for the allies world war ii changed the political alignment and social structure of the globe the united nations un was established to foster international co operation and prevent future conflicts and the victorious great powers china france the soviet union the united kingdom and the united states became the permanent members of its security council the soviet union and the united states emerged as rival superpowers setting the stage for the nearly half century long cold war in the wake of european devastation the influence of its great powers waned triggering the decolonisation of africa and asia most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion political integration especially in europe began as an effort to forestall future hostilities end pre war enmities and forge a sense of common identity cold war edit main article cold war the cold war was a period of geopolitical tension between the united states and the soviet union and their respective allies the western bloc and the eastern bloc which began following world war ii the western bloc was led by the united states as well as the other first world nations of the western bloc that were generally liberal democratic but tied to a network of the authoritarian states most of which were their former colonies 56 full citation needed a the eastern bloc was led by the soviet union and its communist party which had an influence across the second world the us government supported right wing governments and uprisings across the world while the soviet government funded communist parties and revolutions around the world as nearly all the colonial states achieved independence in the period 1945 1960 they became third world battlefields in the cold war early cold war and decolonization edit the first phase of the cold war began shortly after the end of the second world war in 1945 the united states and its allies created the nato military alliance in 1949 in the apprehension of a soviet attack and termed their global policy against soviet influence containment the soviet union formed the warsaw pact in 1955 in response to nato major crises of this phase included the 1948 49 berlin blockade the 1927 1949 chinese civil war the 1950 1953 korean war the 1956 hungarian revolution the 1956 suez crisis the berlin crisis of 1961 and the 1962 cuban missile crisis the us and the ussr competed for influence in latin america the middle east and the decolonizing states of africa and asia détente and the third world edit following the cuban missile crisis a new phase began that saw the sino soviet split between china and the soviet union complicate relations within the communist sphere while france a western bloc state began to demand greater autonomy of action the ussr invaded czechoslovakia to suppress the 1968 prague spring while the us experienced internal turmoil from the civil rights movement and opposition to the vietnam war in the 1960s 70s an international peace movement took root among citizens around the world movements against nuclear arms testing and for nuclear disarmament took place with large anti war protests by the 1970s both sides had started making allowances for peace and security ushering in a period of détente that saw the strategic arms limitation talks and the us opening relations with the people s republic of china as a strategic counterweight to the ussr a number of self proclaimed marxist regimes were formed in the second half of the 1970s in the third world including angola mozambique ethiopia cambodia afghanistan and nicaragua end of the cold war edit détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the soviet afghan war in 1979 the early 1980s was another period ...
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