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e able to read the book of scripture 76 galileo also argued that not only should certainties of science never be called in question much less condemned upon the testimony of biblical passages which may have some different meaning beneath their words 77 but also that those same scientific certainties should be used where appropriate to help interpret scripture 78 faith versus reason edit condemnations of the 13th century edit main article condemnations of 1210 1277 the church played a pivotal role in both establishing the university of paris around 1150 and then facilitating the acquisition and translation of lost greek texts including physical treatises of aristotle into latin but within just a few decades 1210 a provincial synod declared that n either the books of aristotle on natural philosophy or their commentaries are to be read at paris in public or secret and this we forbid under penalty of excommunication 79 in 1215 acting under the authority of pope innocent iii papal legate robert of courçon incorporated these restrictions into the university s governing documents 80 effectively curtailing the teaching of certain aristotelian texts and marking the opening phase of the condemnations two additional rounds of condemnations were undertaken in 1270 and 1277 approximately sixteen lists of censured theses were issued by the university of paris during the 13th and 14th centuries 81 most of these lists of propositions were put together into systematic collections of prohibited articles 81 some scholars have argued that the 13th century condemnations were beneficial for medieval natural philosophy because they loosened the hold of aristotelian dogma on natural philosophers in the following century by condemning any proposition of natural philosophy that subordinated divine omnipotence god s absolute power to aristotelian impossibilities the condemnations inadvertently freed scholars to explore what if scenarios that aristotle had declared impossible such as the existence of a vacuum the plurality of worlds or the rotation of the earth this encouraged a shift in natural philosophy from an aristotelian style search for logical necessity toward the possibility of contingency e g the idea that the actual order of nature is one of many god could have chosen 82 the condemnations expressions of religious authority may have helped to open a door for natural philosophers to move beyond pure logical deduction towards a later project of reading the book of nature as god in fact wrote it roman inquisition edit main articles roman inquisition and index librorum prohibitorum following the emergence of the protestant churches and nations of northern europe the catholic church struggled to defend its authority in europe the mathematician and philosopher jacob bronowski wrote that catholics and protestants were embattled in what we should now call a cold war the church was a great temporal power and in that bitter time it was fighting a political crusade in which all means were justified by the end 83 in 1542 pope paul iii established the congregation of the roman inquisition known later as the holy office 84 to stop the spread of heretical depravity throughout the christian world 85 86 the inquisition was empowered by the church to use aggressive tactics including house arrest 87 and even torture 88 to stop heresy and enforce religious conformity from 1571 the inquisition had jurisdiction over books and created the index of forbidden books 89 90 the inquisition s system of tribunals lasted until the mid 18th century when pre unification italian states began to suppress the local inquisitions effectively eliminating the power of the church to prosecute heretical crimes but the inquisition continued to exist into the 19th century 91 the index was active from 1560 to 1966 92 93 94 while active it banned thousands of books 95 conrad gessner edit main article conrad gessner censorship conrad gessner 1516 1565 his historiae animalium is considered the beginning of modern zoology conrad gessner s zoological work historiae animalium which appeared in four volumes and was published between 1551 and 1588 under pope paul iv it was added to the church s list of prohibited books as gessner was a protestant he still maintained friendship with catholics regardless of the religious animosities between catholics and protestants at that time gaining support for his work catholic booksellers in venice protested the ban on gessner s books but it was later on allowed for selling once it was revised and freed from doctrines contrary to the catholic faith 96 galileo galilei the ban of 1616 edit further information galileo affair inquisition and first judgment 1616 and galileo galilei controversy over heliocentrism in discussions of physical problems we ought to begin not from the authority of scriptural passages but from sense experiences and necessary demonstrations for the holy bible and the phenomena of nature proceed alike from the divine word the former as the dictate of the holy ghost and the latter as the observant executrix of god s commands it is necessary for the bible in order to be accommodated to the understanding of every man to speak many things which appear to differ from the absolute truth so far as the bare meaning of the words is concerned but nature on the other hand is inexorable and immutable she never transgresses the laws imposed upon her or cares a whit whether her abstruse reasons and methods of operation are understandable to men for that reason it appears that nothing physical which sense experience sets before our eyes or which necessary demonstrations prove to us ought to be called in question much less condemned upon the testimony of biblical passages which may have some different meaning beneath their words for the bible is not chained in every expression to conditions as strict as those which govern all physical effects nor is god any less excellently revealed in nature s actions than in the sacred statements of the bible perhaps this is what tertullian meant by these words we conclude that god is known first through nature and then again more particularly by doctrine by nature in his works and by doctrine in his revealed word galileo galilei letter to the grand duchess christina 1615 97 galileo galilei was a catholic 98 scientist during the scientific revolution initially a beneficiary of church patronage of astronomy galileo rose to prominence with the publication of starry messenger in 1610 which included astronomical observations made possible by the 1608 invention of the telescope he was feted in rome honoured by the jesuits of the roman college and received by pope paul v and church dignitaries 99 in 1613 his letters on sunspots was published which reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of venus strong evidence that geocentrism was false 100 101 a publicist and a partisan 102 in addition to being a scholar galileo argued in the letter to the grand duchess christina 1615 103 that the language of the bible had been accommodated to be understandable to uneducated people and should therefore not be interpreted as literal scientific descriptions 104 and the church risked reputational damage in the long run if it officially condemned heliocentrism 105 106 107 he invited the church to follow established practice and reinterpret scripture in light of the new scientific discoveries 108 78 quoting cardinal baronius that the intention of the holy ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven not how heaven goes d 109 the leading jesuit theologian cardinal robert bellarmine agreed this would be an appropriate response to a true demonstration that the sun was at the center of the universe heliocentrism but cautioned that the existing materials upon which galileo relied did not yet constitute an established truth 99 cardinal carlo conti privately told galileo that scripture could potentially accommodate a moving earth but also cautioned galileo against publicly adopting such views without great necessity 110 galileo received staunch support from a carmelite friar paolo antonio foscarini who published a book defending galileo s heliocentrism and presenting it as compatible with the bible 111 but also bitter opposition from some philosophers and clerics two of whom denounced him to the roman inquisition early in 1615 warning that galileo should not go outside mathematics and physics and should avoid provoking theologians by teaching them how to read the bible 112 one of the philosophers who issued a complaint to the inquisition was tommaso caccini who disregarded galileo as a mathematician and strongly attacked him in his sermons ordering him to withdraw from philosophy and citing acts 1 11 ye men of galilee why stand ye gazing up into heaven 113 the report of the inquisition s consultants declared heliocentrism as false and contrary to scripture in february 1616 114 115 although maurice finocchiaro notes that copernicanism was never formally declared to be heresy as the congregation of the holy office did not endorse the consultant s report and refused to follow through with an official declaration 116 on 26 february cardinal bellarmine visited galileo and informed him of the inquisition s decision explaining that although copernicanism could be a viable theory it was not proven true as such the church could not abandon the common interpretation of scripture for a hypothesis 117 bellarmine argued that should a decisive proof of earth s motion be found the church would admit that we do not understand them rather than say that something that has been proved is false he then demanded galileo to stop teaching and defending copernican theory to which galileo agreed 118 bellarmine met with the pope on 3 march and informed him of galileo s compliance 119 that month the church s congregation of the index issued a decree suspending de revolutionibus because the idea that the earth moves and the sun does not was false and altogether opposed to holy scripture 120 the edits to de revolutionibus which omitted or altered nine sentences were issued four years later in 1620 121 galileo galilei the trial of 1633 edit further information galileo affair trial and second judgment 1633 in 1623 galileo s friend maffeo barberini was elected as pope urban viii urban viii was an intellectual and patron of the arts and architecture who had written poetry as a young man in praise of galileo s astronomical writings galileo met with the new pope hoping to persuade him to lift the 1616 ban 122 urban viii had been an ally of galileo ever since he became a cardinal and provided funding for galileo s work the pope s correspondence also reveals that he was privately sympathetic to copernacnism but did not wish to publicly admit so 123 on the condition that it remain an objective analysis of competing cosmologies the pope permitted galileo to publish a book on the copernican hypothesis however the resulting dialogue concerning the two chief world systems explicitly endorsed the copernican model because the book appeared with the pope s endorsement on its title page 124 it appeared that the church officially supported heliocentrism compromising urban viii s position 125 as well as personally offending him as his own arguments were put into the mouth of the buffoon like simplicio in the dialogue 126 according to finocchiaro although urban viii himself sympathised with galileo and wanted him to merely revise the dialogue galileo s attacks on influential clerical figures and massive backlash forced him to act the position of the pope was also greatly endangered by the ongoing thirty years war which pressured him to reaffirm his authority 127 william rené shea es argues that galileo attracted the interest of the inquisition by getting involved in theological matters galileo insisted that heliocentrism was of undoubted certainty and said the scriptural interpretations that seemed to suggest otherwise should be re evaluated 108 78 cristiano banti s 1857 painting galileo facing the roman inquisition galileo was summoned to rome to be tried by the inquisition in 1633 he was accused of violating the 1616 ban that forbade him from teaching or defending his theory 128 and breaking his agreement with the pope as instead of following through the compromise of urban viii to present his theory as a hypothesis and an instrument of prediction and calculation galileo presented his beliefs as factual and unconditional 127 dialogue received backlash for its rhetorical excesses and biting sarcasm including attacking several clerical figures 127 finocchiaro notes that the trial was focused on philosophy and galileo claimed to have spent more years studying philosophy than months studying pure mathematics 129 galileo was supported by several catholic figures such as monsignor piero dini carmelite paolo antonio foscarini and a dominican tommaso campanella his trial in 1633 made him gain sympathy from more clergy like ascanio ii piccolomini and fulgenzio micanzio 130 galileo was found vehemently suspect of heresy for following the position of copernicus which is contrary to the true sense and authority of holy scripture 131 galileo was forced to recant and was sentenced to house arrest with the sentence being commuted on 23 june 1633 132 while under house arrest galileo wrote his most influential work two new sciences despite discussing the motion of earth and endorsing copernican theory galileo did not suffer any harm from the inquisition for publishing this book even though it reached rome s bookstores in january 1639 and all available copies were quickly sold 133 finocchario argues that since the inquisition allowed galileo s two new sciences to later be published despite endorsing the copernican theory galileo s trial was not a condemnation of heliocentrism but rather a condemnation of galileo s attempt to reinterpret the bible which was seen as especially dangerous amid the counter reformation 134 after the revolution edit the scientific revolution of the 17th century was a fundamental restructuring of human civilization that included a decoupling of knowledge production from either religious sponsorship or authority historians of science continue to debate the magnitude of this shift did the revolution merely outshine everything since the rise of christianity 135 or is the better comparison actually to the neolithic revolution 136 profane universe edit see also religious cosmology galileo s early 17th century telescopic observations began the transformation of what had been a narrowly technical revision of classical astronomy by copernicus the pious church official into an increasingly disorienting challenge to traditional cosmology this shift began by reimagining the earth as an unremarkable planet in motion it would eventually culminate in a vision of a world circulating purposelessly around an ordinary star no different from an 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