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ed 14 united states navy ships whereas air and missile attacks have damaged four during the korean war mines laid by north korean forces caused 70 of the casualties suffered by us naval vessels and caused 4 sinkings 39 during the iran iraq war from 1980 to 1988 the belligerents mined several areas of the persian gulf and nearby waters on 24 july 1987 the supertanker ss bridgeton was mined by iran near farsi island on 14 april 1988 uss samuel b roberts struck an iranian mine in the central persian gulf shipping lane wounding 10 sailors in the summer of 1984 magnetic sea mines damaged at least 19 ships in the red sea the us concluded libya was probably responsible for the minelaying 40 in response the us britain france and three other nations 41 launched operation intense look a minesweeping operation in the red sea involving more than 46 ships 42 on the orders of the reagan administration the cia mined nicaragua s sandino port in 1984 in support of the contras 43 a soviet tanker was among the ships damaged by these mines 44 in 1986 in the case of nicaragua v united states the international court of justice ruled that this mining was a violation of international law post cold war edit during the gulf war iraqi naval mines severely damaged uss princeton and uss tripoli 45 the us navy mined the approaches to the iraqi port of umm qasr on 17 january 1991 three a 6 intruders from the aircraft carrier uss ranger dropped mines on the main channel amid intense anti aircraft fire from zu 23 2 and iraqi naval vessels one of the a 6s was shot down and its two crewmembers were lost the pilot of one of the surviving a 6s claims he watched three ships disabled by the mines in the area during the last mission of the war 46 when active hostilities concluded eight countries conducted clearance operations 41 houthi forces in the yemeni civil war have made frequent use of naval mines laying over 150 in the red sea throughout the conflict 47 in the first month of the 2022 russian invasion of ukraine ukraine accused russia of deliberately employing drifting mines in the black sea area around the same time turkish and romanian military diving teams were involved in defusing operations when stray mines were spotted near the coasts of these countries london p i club issued a warning to freight ships in the area advising them to maintain lookouts for mines and pay careful attention to local navigation warnings 48 ukrainian forces have mined from the sea of azov to the black sea which banks the critical city of odesa 49 when the united states and israel launched an air war against iran iran planted sea mines in the strait of hormuz resulting in the 2026 strait of hormuz crisis 50 types edit types of naval mines a underwater b bottom ss submarine 1 drifting mine 2 drifting mine 3 moored mine long wire 4 moored mine short wire 5 bottom mines 6 torpedo mine captor mine 7 rising mine naval mines may be classified into three major groups contact remote and influence mines contact mines edit the earliest mines were usually of this type they are still used today as they are extremely low cost compared to any other anti ship weapon and are effective both as a psychological weapon and as a method to sink enemy ships contact mines need to be touched by the target before they detonate limiting the damage to the direct effects of the explosion and usually affecting only the vessel that triggers them early mines had mechanical mechanisms to detonate them but these were superseded in the 1870s by the hertz horn or chemical horn which was found to work reliably even after the mine had been in the sea for several years the mine s upper half is studded with hollow lead protuberances each containing a glass vial filled with sulfuric acid when a ship s hull crushes the metal horn it cracks the vial inside it allowing the acid to run down a tube and into a lead acid battery which until then contained no acid electrolyte this energizes the battery which detonates the explosive 51 earlier forms of the detonator employed a vial of sulfuric acid surrounded by a mixture of potassium perchlorate and sugar when the vial was crushed the acid ignited the perchlorate sugar mix and the resulting flame ignited the gunpowder charge 52 during the initial period of world war i the royal navy used contact mines in the english channel and later in large areas of the north sea to hinder patrols by german submarines later the american antenna mine was widely used because submarines could be at any depth from the surface to the seabed this type of mine had a copper wire attached to a buoy that floated above the explosive charge which was weighted to the seabed with a steel cable if a submarine s steel hull touched the copper wire the slight voltage change caused by contact between two dissimilar metals was amplified clarification needed and detonated the explosives 51 limpet mines edit main article limpet mine limpet mines are a special form of contact mine that are manually attached to the target by magnets and remain in place they are named because of the similarity to the limpet a mollusk moored contact mines edit a german contact mine laid in australian waters during world war ii generally this type of mine is set to float just below the surface of the water or as deep as five meters a steel cable connecting the mine to an anchor on the seabed prevents it from drifting away the explosive and detonating mechanism is contained in a buoyant metal or plastic shell the depth below the surface at which the mine floats can be set so that only deep draft vessels such as aircraft carriers battleships or large cargo ships are at risk saving the mine from being used on a less valuable target in littoral waters it is important to ensure that the mine does not become visible when the sea level falls at low tide so the cable length is adjusted to take account of tides during wwii there were mines that could be moored in 300 m deep 980 ft water floating mines typically have a mass of around 200 kg 440 lb including 80 kg 180 lb of explosives e g tnt minol or amatol 53 moored contact mines with plummet edit sequence of laying a moored contact mine with a plummet a special form of moored contact mines are those equipped with a plummet when the mine is launched 1 the mine with the anchor floats first and the lead plummet sinks from it 2 in doing so the plummet unwinds a wire the deep line which is used to set the depth of the mine below the water surface before it is launched 3 when the deep line has been unwound to a set length the anchor is flooded and the mine is released from the anchor 4 the anchor begins to sink and the mooring cable unwinds until the plummet reaches the sea floor 5 triggered by the decreasing tension on the deep line the mooring cable is clamped the anchor continues sinking down to the bottom of the sea pulling the mine below the water surface to a depth equal to the length of the deep line 6 thus even without knowing the exact seafloor depth an exact depth of the mine below the water surface can be set limited only by the maximum length of the mooring cable drifting contact mines edit drifting mines were occasionally used during world war i and world war ii however they were more feared than effective sometimes floating mines break from their moorings and become drifting mines modern mines are designed to deactivate in this event after several years at sea the deactivation mechanism might not function as intended and the mines may remain live admiral jellicoe s british fleet did not pursue and destroy the outnumbered german high seas fleet when it turned away at the battle of jutland because he thought they were leading him into a trap he believed it possible that the germans were either leaving floating mines in their wake or were drawing him towards submarines although neither of these was the case after world war i the drifting contact mine was banned but was occasionally used during world war ii the drifting mines were much harder to remove than tethered mines after the war and they caused about the same damage to both sides 54 churchill promoted operation royal marine in 1940 and again in 1944 where floating mines were put into the rhine in france to float down the river becoming active after a time calculated to be long enough to reach german territory remotely controlled mines edit frequently used in combination with coastal artillery and hydrophones controlled mines or command detonation mines can be in place in peacetime which is a huge advantage in blocking important shipping routes the mines can usually be turned into normal mines with a switch which prevents the enemy from simply capturing the controlling station and deactivating the mines detonated on a signal or be allowed to detonate on their own the earliest ones were developed around 1812 by robert fulton the first remotely controlled mines were moored mines used in the american civil war detonated electrically from shore they were considered superior to contact mines because they did not put friendly shipping at risk 55 the extensive american fortifications program initiated by the board of fortifications in 1885 included remotely controlled mines which were emplaced or in reserve from the 1890s until the end of world war ii 56 modern examples usually weigh 200 kg 440 lb including 80 kg 180 lb of explosives tnt or torpex citation needed influence mines edit german parachute retarded magnetic mine dropped by luftwaffe bomber during wwii and landed on the ground fuze mechanisms are visible these mines are triggered by the influence of a ship or submarine rather than direct contact such mines incorporate sensors designed to detect the presence of a vessel and detonate when it comes within the blast range of the warhead the fuzes on such mines may incorporate one or more of the following sensors magnetic passive acoustic or water pressure displacement caused by the proximity of a vessel 57 first used during wwi their use became more general in wwii the sophistication of influence mine fuzes has increased considerably over the years as first transistors and then microprocessors have been incorporated into designs simple magnetic sensors have been superseded by total field magnetometers whereas early magnetic mine fuzes would respond only to changes in a single component of a target vessel s magnetic field a total field magnetometer responds to changes in the magnitude of the total background field thus enabling it to better detect even degaussed ships similarly the original broadband hydrophones of 1940s acoustic mines which operate on the integrated volume of all frequencies have been replaced by narrow band sensors which are much more sensitive and selective mines can now be programmed to listen for highly specific acoustic signatures e g a gas turbine powerplant or cavitation sounds from a particular design of propeller and ignore all others the sophistication of modern electronic mine fuzes incorporating these digital signal processing capabilities makes it much more difficult to detonate the mine with electronic countermeasures because several sensors working together e g magnetic passive acoustic and water pressure allow it to ignore signals which are not recognised as being the unique signature of an intended target vessel 58 modern influence mines such as the bae stonefish are computerised with all the programmability this implies such as the ability to quickly load new acoustic signatures into fuzes or program them to detect a single highly distinctive target signature in this way a mine with a passive acoustic fuze can be programmed to ignore all friendly vessels and small enemy vessels only detonating when a very large enemy target passes over it alternatively the mine can be programmed specifically to ignore all surface vessels regardless of size and exclusively target submarines even as far back as wwii it was possible to incorporate a ship counter function in mine fuzes this might set the mine to ignore the first two ships passing over it which could be minesweepers deliberately trying to trigger mines but detonate when the third ship passes overhead which could be a high value target such as an aircraft carrier or oil tanker even though modern mines are generally powered by a long life lithium battery it is important to conserve power because they may need to remain active for months or even years for this reason most influence mines are designed to remain in a semi dormant state until an unpowered e g deflection of a mu metal needle or low powered sensor detects the possible presence of a vessel at which point the mine fuze powers up fully and the passive acoustic sensors will begin to operate for some minutes it is possible to program computerised mines to delay activation for days or weeks after being laid similarly they can be programmed to self destruct or render themselves safe after a preset period of time generally the more sophisticated the mine design the more likely it is to have some form of anti handling device to hinder clearance by divers or remotely piloted submersibles 58 59 moored mines edit the moored mine is the backbone of modern mine systems they are deployed where water is too deep for bottom mines they can use several kinds of instruments to detect an enemy usually a combination of acoustic magnetic and pressure sensors or more sophisticated optical shadows or electro potential sensors these cost many times more than contact mines moored mines are effective against most kinds of ships as they are cheaper than other anti ship weapons they can be deployed in large numbers making them useful area denial or channelizing weapons moored mines usually have lifetimes of more than 10 years and some almost unlimited these mines usually weigh 200 kg 440 lb including 80 kg 180 lb of explosives rdx in excess of 150 kg 330 lb of explosives the mine becomes inefficient as it becomes too large to handle and the extra explosives add little to the mine s effectiveness citation needed bottom mines edit bottom mines sometimes called ground mines are used when the water is no more than 60 meters 200 feet deep or when mining for submarines down to around 200 meters 660 feet they are much harder to detect and sweep and can carry a much larger warhead than a moored mine bottom mines commonly use multiple types of sensors which are less sensitive to sweeping 59 60 these mines usually weigh between 150 and 1 500 kg 330 and 3 300 lb including between 125 and 1 400 kg 280 and 3 100 lb of explosives 61 unusual mines edit several specialized mines have been developed for other purposes than the common minefield bouquet mine edit the bouquet mine is a single anchor attached to several floating mines it is designed so that when one mine is swept or detonated another takes its place it is a very sensitive construction and lacks reliability anti sweep mine edit soviet anti sweep mine mz 26 on exposi...
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