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dently during the course of the progressive case based on research that located declassified documents listing special foams as liner components within the radiation case of thermonuclear weapons 30 31 the sequence of firing the weapon with the foam would be as follows the high explosives surrounding the core of the primary fire compressing the fissile material into a supercritical state and beginning the fission chain reaction 32 the fissioning primary emits thermal x rays which reflect along the inside of the casing irradiating the polystyrene foam 32 the irradiated foam becomes a hot plasma pushing against the tamper of the secondary compressing it tightly and beginning the fission chain reaction in the spark plug 32 pushed from both sides from the primary and the spark plug the lithium deuteride fuel is highly compressed and heated to thermonuclear temperatures also by being bombarded with neutrons each lithium 6 6 li atom splits into one tritium atom and one alpha particle then begins a fusion reaction between the tritium and the deuterium releasing even more neutrons and a huge amount of energy the fuel undergoing the fusion reaction emits a large flux of high energy neutrons 14 mev 2 2 pj which irradiates the 238 u tamper or the 238 u bomb casing causing it to undergo a fast fission reaction providing about half of the total energy this would complete the fission fusion fission sequence fusion unlike fission is relatively clean it releases energy but no harmful radioactive products or large amounts of nuclear fallout the fission reactions though especially the last fission reactions release a tremendous amount of fission products and fallout if the last fission stage is omitted by replacing the uranium tamper with one made of lead for example the overall explosive force is reduced by approximately half but the amount of fallout is relatively low the neutron bomb is a hydrogen bomb with an intentionally thin tamper allowing as many of the fast fusion neutrons as possible to escape foam plasma mechanism firing sequence warhead before firing primary fission bomb at top secondary fusion fuel at bottom all suspended in polystyrene foam high explosive fires in primary compressing plutonium core into supercriticality and beginning a fission reaction fission primary emits x rays that are scattered along the inside of the casing irradiating the polystyrene foam polystyrene foam becomes plasma compressing secondary and plutonium sparkplug begins to fission compressed and heated lithium 6 deuteride fuel produces tritium 3 h and begins the fusion reaction the neutron flux produced causes the 238 u tamper to fission a fireball starts to form current technical criticisms of the idea of foam plasma pressure focus on unclassified analysis from similar high energy physics fields that indicate that the pressure produced by such a plasma would only be a small multiplier of the basic photon pressure within the radiation case and also that the known foam materials intrinsically have a very low absorption efficiency of the gamma ray and x ray radiation from the primary most of the energy produced would be absorbed by either the walls of the radiation case or the tamper around the secondary analyzing the effects of that absorbed energy led to the third mechanism ablation tamper pusher ablation edit the outer casing of the secondary assembly is called the tamper pusher the purpose of a tamper in an implosion bomb is to delay the expansion of the reacting fuel supply which is very hot dense plasma until the fuel is fully consumed and the explosion runs to completion the same tamper material serves also as a pusher in that it is the medium by which the outside pressure force acting on the surface area of the secondary is transferred to the mass of fusion fuel the proposed tamper pusher ablation mechanism posits that the outer layers of the thermonuclear secondary s tamper pusher are heated so extremely by the primary s x ray flux that they expand violently and ablate away fly off because total momentum is conserved this mass of high velocity ejecta impels the rest of the tamper pusher to recoil inwards with tremendous force crushing the fusion fuel and the spark plug the tamper pusher is built robustly enough to insulate the fusion fuel from the extreme heat outside otherwise the compression would be spoiled ablation mechanism firing sequence warhead before firing the nested spheres at the top are the fission primary the cylinders below are the fusion secondary device fission primary s explosives have detonated and collapsed the primary s fissile pit the primary s fission reaction has run to completion and the primary is now at several million degrees and radiating gamma and hard x rays heating up the inside of the hohlraum and the shield and secondary s tamper the primary s reaction is over and it has expanded the surface of the pusher for the secondary is now so hot that it is also ablating or expanding away pushing the rest of the secondary tamper fusion fuel and fissile spark plug inwards the spark plug starts to fission not depicted the radiation case is also ablating and expanding outwards omitted for clarity of diagram the secondary s fuel has started the fusion reaction and shortly will burn up a fireball starts to form rough calculations for the basic ablation effect are relatively simple the energy from the primary is distributed evenly onto all of the surfaces within the outer radiation case with the components coming to a thermal equilibrium and the effects of that thermal energy are then analyzed the energy is mostly deposited within about one x ray optical thickness of the tamper pusher outer surface and the temperature of that layer can then be calculated the velocity at which the surface then expands outwards is calculated and from a basic newtonian momentum balance the velocity at which the rest of the tamper implodes inwards applying the more detailed form of those calculations to the ivy mike device yields vaporized pusher gas expansion velocity of 290 kilometres per second 29 cm μs and an implosion velocity of perhaps 400 km s 40 cm μs if 3 4 of the total tamper pusher mass is ablated off the most energy efficient proportion for the w 80 the gas expansion velocity is roughly 410 km s 41 cm μs and the implosion velocity 570 km s 57 cm μs the pressure due to the ablating material is calculated to be 5 3 billion bars 530 trillion pascals in the ivy mike device and 64 billion bars 6 4 quadrillion pascals in the w 80 device 29 comparing implosion mechanisms edit comparing the three mechanisms proposed it can be seen that mechanism pressure tpa ivy mike w80 radiation pressure 7 3 140 plasma pressure 35 750 ablation pressure 530 6400 the calculated ablation pressure is one order of magnitude greater than the higher proposed plasma pressures and nearly two orders of magnitude greater than calculated radiation pressure no mechanism to avoid the absorption of energy into the radiation case wall and the secondary tamper has been suggested making ablation apparently unavoidable united states department of defense official declassification reports indicate that foamed plastic materials are or may be used in radiation case liners and despite the low direct plasma pressure they may be of use in delaying the ablation until energy has distributed evenly and a sufficient fraction has reached the secondary s tamper pusher 33 richard rhodes book dark sun stated that a 25 millimetre thick 1 in layer of plastic foam was fixed to the lead liner of the inside of the ivy mike steel casing using copper nails rhodes quotes several designers of that bomb explaining that the plastic foam layer inside the outer case is to delay ablation and thus recoil of the outer case if the foam were not there metal would ablate from the inside of the outer case with a large impulse causing the casing to recoil outwards rapidly the purpose of the casing is to contain the explosion for as long as possible allowing as much x ray ablation of the metallic surface of the secondary stage as possible so it compresses the secondary efficiently maximizing the fusion yield plastic foam has a low density so causes a smaller impulse when it ablates than metal does 33 design variations edit the examples and perspectives in this section deal primarily with the united states and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject you may improve this section discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new section as appropriate july 2025 learn how and when to remove this message possible variations to the weapon design have been proposed either the tamper or the casing have been proposed to be made of 235 u highly enriched uranium in the final fission jacket the far more expensive 235 u is also fissionable with fast neutrons like the 238 u in depleted or natural uranium but its fission efficiency is higher this is because 235 u nuclei also undergo fission by slow neutrons 238 u nuclei require a minimum energy of about 1 megaelectronvolt 0 16 pj and because these slower neutrons are produced by other fissioning 235 u nuclei in the jacket in other words 235 u supports the nuclear chain reaction whereas 238 u does not furthermore a 235 u jacket fosters neutron multiplication whereas 238 u nuclei consume fusion neutrons in the fast fission process using a final fissionable fissile jacket of 235 u would thus increase the yield of a teller ulam bomb above a depleted uranium or natural uranium jacket this has been proposed specifically for the w87 warheads retrofitted to currently deployed lgm 30 minuteman iii icbms in some descriptions additional internal structures exist to protect the secondary from receiving excessive neutrons from the primary the inside of the casing may or may not be specially machined to reflect the x rays x ray reflection is not like light reflecting off a mirror but rather the reflector material is heated by the x rays causing the material to emit x rays which then travel to the secondary most bombs do not apparently have tertiary stages that is third compression stage s which are additional fusion stages compressed by a previous fusion stage the fissioning of the last blanket of uranium which provides about half the yield in large bombs does not count as a stage in this terminology citation needed the us tested three stage bombs in several explosions during operation redwing but is thought to have fielded only one such tertiary model i e a bomb in which a fission stage followed by a fusion stage finally compresses yet another fusion stage this us design was the heavy but highly efficient i e nuclear weapon yield per unit bomb weight 25 mt 100 pj b41 nuclear bomb 34 the soviet union is thought to have used multiple stages including more than one tertiary fusion stage in their 50 mt 210 pj tsar bomba which was 100 mt 420 pj in intended use the fissionable jacket could be replaced with lead as was done with the tsar bomba if any hydrogen bombs have been made from configurations other than those based on the teller ulam design the fact of it is not publicly known a possible exception to this is the soviet early sloika design citation needed in essence the teller ulam configuration relies on at least two instances of implosion occurring first the conventional chemical explosives in the primary would compress the fissile core resulting in a fission explosion many times more powerful than that which chemical explosives could achieve alone first stage second the radiation from the fissioning of the primary would be used to compress and ignite the secondary fusion stage resulting in a fusion explosion many times more powerful than the fission explosion alone this chain of compression could conceivably be continued with an arbitrary number of tertiary fusion stages each igniting more fusion fuel in the next stage 35 192 193 36 better source needed although this is debated finally efficient bombs but not so called neutron bombs end with the fissioning of the final natural uranium tamper something that could not normally be achieved without the neutron flux provided by the fusion reactions in secondary or tertiary stages such designs are suggested to be capable of being scaled up to an arbitrary large yield with apparently as many fusion stages as desired 35 192 193 36 better source needed potentially to the level of a doomsday device however usually such weapons were not more than a dozen megatons which was generally considered enough to destroy even the most hardened practical targets for example a control facility such as the cheyenne mountain complex even such large bombs have been replaced by smaller yield nuclear bunker buster bombs citation needed for destruction of cities and non hardened targets breaking the mass of a single missile payload down into smaller mirv bombs in order to spread the energy of the explosions into a pancake area is far more efficient in terms of area destruction per unit of bomb energy this also applies to single bombs deliverable by cruise missile or other system such as a bomber resulting in most operational warheads in the us program having yields of less than 500 kt 2 100 tj citation needed ivy mike edit in his 1995 book dark sun the making of the hydrogen bomb author richard rhodes describes in detail the internal components of the ivy mike sausage device based on information obtained from extensive interviews with the scientists and engineers who assembled it according to rhodes the actual mechanism for the compression of the secondary was a combination of the radiation pressure foam plasma pressure and tamper pusher ablation theories the radiation from the primary heated the polyethylene foam lining of the casing to a plasma which then re radiated radiation into the secondary s pusher causing its surface to ablate and driving it inwards compressing the secondary igniting the sparkplug and causing the fusion reaction the general applicability of this principle is unclear 24 ripple edit the ripple secondary is the cleanest largest fusion fraction and highest yield to weight ratio device tested it was tested during the 1962 operation dominic series unlike previous clean bombs which were clean simply by replacing the uranium 238 tamper with lead ripple was inherently clean the fission sparkplug was replaced by a large deuterium tritium gas core surrounded by a thinner lithium deuteride shell it is assumed that thin concentric shells of a high z material like lead driven by the small kinglet primary allowed propagated sustained shockwaves to the core sustaining the thermonuclear burn and giving the device its name the design was influenced by the nascent field of inertial confinement fusion ripple was also extremely efficient plans were made for a 15 kt kg shot androscoggin featured a proof of concept ripple design resulting in a 63 kiloton fizzle significantly lower than the predicted 15 megatons it was repeated in shot hous...
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