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nas has had a lasting impact on later generations of thinkers and was part of an emerging consensus in medieval europe on just war 49 in the 13th century aquinas reflected in detail on peace and war aquinas was a dominican friar and contemplated the teachings of the bible on peace and war in combination with ideas from aristotle plato socrates saint augustine and other philosophers whose writings are part of the western canon aquinas views on war drew heavily on the decretum gratiani a book the italian monk gratian had compiled with passages from the bible after its publication in the 12th century the decretum gratiani had been republished with commentary from pope innocent iv and the dominican friar raymond of penafort other significant influences on aquinas just war theory were alexander of hales and henry of segusio 50 in summa theologica aquinas asserted that it is not always a sin to wage war and he set out criteria for a just war according to aquinas three requirements must be met firstly the war must be waged upon the command of a rightful sovereign secondly the war needs to be waged for just cause on account of some wrong the attacked have committed thirdly warriors must have the right intent namely to promote good and to avoid evil 51 52 aquinas came to the conclusion that a just war could be offensive and that injustice should not be tolerated so as to avoid war nevertheless aquinas argued that violence must only be used as a last resort on the battlefield violence was only justified to the extent it was necessary soldiers needed to avoid cruelty and a just war was limited by the conduct of just combatants aquinas argued that it was only in the pursuit of justice that the good intention of a moral act could justify negative consequences including the killing of the innocent during a war 53 renaissance and christian humanists edit various renaissance humanists promoted pacificist views john colet famously preached a lenten sermon before henry viii who was preparing for a war quoting cicero better an unjust peace rather than the justest war 54 erasmus of rotterdam wrote numerous works on peace which criticized just war theory as a smokescreen and added extra limitations notably the complaint of peace and the treatise on war dulce bellum inexpertis a leading humanist writer after the reformation was legal theorist hugo grotius whose de jura belli ac pacis re considered just war and fighting wars justly first world war edit at the beginning of the first world war a group of theologians in germany published a manifesto that sought to justify the actions of the german government at the british government s request randall davidson archbishop of canterbury took the lead in collaborating with a large number of other religious leaders including some with whom he had differed in the past to write a rebuttal of the germans contentions both german and british theologians based themselves on the just war theory each group seeking to prove that it applied to the war waged by its own side 55 contemporary catholic doctrine edit the just war doctrine of the catholic church found in the 1992 catechism of the catholic church in paragraph 2309 lists four strict conditions for legitimate defense by military force 56 57 the damage inflicted by the aggressor on the nation or community of nations must be lasting grave and certain all other means of putting an end to it must have been shown to be impractical or ineffective there must be serious prospects of success the use of arms must not produce evils and disorders graver than the evil to be eliminated the compendium of the social doctrine of the church elaborates on the just war doctrine in paragraphs 500 to 501 while citing the charter of the united nations 58 if this responsibility justifies the possession of sufficient means to exercise this right to defense states still have the obligation to do everything possible to ensure that the conditions of peace exist not only within their own territory but throughout the world it is important to remember that it is one thing to wage a war of self defense it is quite another to seek to impose domination on another nation the possession of war potential does not justify the use of force for political or military objectives nor does the mere fact that war has unfortunately broken out mean that all is fair between the warring parties the charter of the united nations is based on a generalized prohibition of a recourse to force to resolve disputes between states with the exception of two cases legitimate defence and measures taken by the security council within the area of its responsibilities for maintaining peace in every case exercising the right to self defence must respect the traditional limits of necessity and proportionality therefore engaging in a preventive war without clear proof that an attack is imminent cannot fail to raise serious moral and juridical questions international legitimacy for the use of armed force on the basis of rigorous assessment and with well founded motivations can only be given by the decision of a competent body that identifies specific situations as threats to peace and authorizes an intrusion into the sphere of autonomy usually reserved to a state compendium of the social doctrine of the church 58 pope john paul ii in an address to a group of soldiers noted the following 59 peace as taught by sacred scripture and the experience of men itself is more than just the absence of war and the christian is aware that on earth a human society that is completely and always peaceful is unfortunately an utopia and that the ideologies which present it as easily attainable only nourish vain hopes the cause of peace will not go forward by denying the possibility and the obligation to defend it evangelical lutheran churches edit the evangelical lutheran churches affirm just war doctrine it was formulated by martin luther a war can be considered just if it has just authority this means that it has the injunction of the god given calling of ruler emperor head of state and bearer of the sword in the civil realm a just war must have just cause and right intention just war is defensive whereas unjust war is offensive 60 martin luther states that worldly government has not been instituted by god to break the peace and start war but to maintain peace and to avoid war 60 in a just war combatants should be distinguished from non combatants when victory has been achieved one should offer mercy and peace to those who surrender and humble themselves 60 christians according to evangelical lutheran theology are not obligated to obey civil authorities when they wage a war that is unjust since moral duty requires obedience to god above all 60 russian orthodox church edit the war and peace section in the basis of the social concept of the russian orthodox church is crucial for understanding the russian orthodox church s attitude towards war the document offers criteria of distinguishing between an aggressive war which is unacceptable and a justified war attributing the highest moral and sacred value of military acts of bravery to a true believer who participates in a justified war additionally the document considers the just war criteria as developed in western christianity to be eligible for russian orthodoxy therefore the justified war theory in western theology is also applicable to the russian orthodox church 61 in the same document it is stated that wars have accompanied human history since the fall of man and according to the gospel they will continue to accompany it while recognizing war as evil the russian orthodox church does not prohibit its members from participating in hostilities if there is the security of their neighbours and the restoration of trampled justice at stake war is considered to be necessary but undesirable it is also stated that the russian orthodox church has had profound respect for soldiers who gave their lives to protect the life and security of their neighbours 62 just war tradition edit the just war theory propounded by the medieval christian philosopher thomas aquinas was developed further by legal scholars in the context of international law cardinal cajetan the jurist francisco de vitoria the two jesuit priests luis de molina and francisco suárez as well as the humanist hugo grotius and the lawyer luigi taparelli were most influential in the formation of a just war tradition the just war tradition which was well established by the 19th century found its practical application in the hague peace conferences 1899 and 1907 and in the founding of the league of nations in 1920 after the united states congress declared war on germany in 1917 cardinal james gibbons issued a letter that all catholics were to support the war 63 because our lord jesus christ does not stand for peace at any price if by pacifism is meant the teaching that the use of force is never justifiable then however well meant it is mistaken and it is hurtful to the life of our country 64 armed conflicts such as the spanish civil war world war ii and the cold war were as a matter of course judged according to the norms as established in aquinas just war theory by philosophers such as jacques maritain elizabeth anscombe and john finnis 49 the first work dedicated specifically to just war was the 15th century sermon de bellis justis of stanisław of skarbimierz 1360 1431 who justified war by the kingdom of poland against the teutonic knights 65 francisco de vitoria criticized the conquest of america by the spanish conquistadors on the basis of just war theory 66 with alberico gentili and hugo grotius just war theory was replaced by international law theory codified as a set of rules which today still encompass the points commonly debated with some modifications 67 just war theorists combine a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary the criteria of the just war tradition act as an aid in determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible just war theories aim to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces they attempt to conceive of how the use of arms might be restrained made more humane and ultimately directed towards the aim of establishing lasting peace and justice 68 the just war tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts when it is right to resort to armed force the concern of jus ad bellum and what is acceptable in using such force the concern of jus in bello 69 in 1869 the russian military theorist genrikh antonovich leer ru theorized on the advantages and potential benefits of war 70 the soviet leader vladimir lenin defined only three types of just war 71 but picture to yourselves a slave owner who owned 100 slaves warring against a slave owner who owned 200 slaves for a more just distribution of slaves clearly the application of the term defensive war or war for the defense of the fatherland in such a case would be historically false and in practice would be sheer deception of the common people of philistines of ignorant people by the astute slaveowners precisely in this way are the present day imperialist bourgeoisie deceiving the peoples by means of national ideology and the term defense of the fatherland in the present war between slave owners for fortifying and strengthening slavery 72 the anarcho capitalist scholar murray rothbard 1926 1995 stated that a just war exists when a people tries to ward off the threat of coercive domination by another people or to overthrow an already existing domination a war is unjust on the other hand when a people try to impose domination on another people or try to retain an already existing coercive rule over them 73 jonathan riley smith writes the consensus among christians on the use of violence has changed radically since the crusades were fought the just war theory prevailing for most of the last two centuries that violence is an evil that can in certain situations be condoned as the lesser of evils is relatively young although it has inherited some elements the criteria of legitimate authority just cause right intention from the older war theory that first evolved around ad 400 it has rejected two premises that underpinned all medieval just wars including crusades first that violence could be employed on behalf of christ s intentions for mankind and could even be directly authorized by him and second that it was a morally neutral force that drew whatever ethical coloring it had from the intentions of the perpetrators 74 criteria edit the just war theory has two sets of criteria the first establishing jus ad bellum the right to go to war and the second establishing jus in bello right conduct within war 75 jus ad bellum edit main article jus ad bellum the just war theory directs jus ad bellum to norms that aim to require certain circumstances to enable the right to go to war 76 competent authority only duly constituted public authorities may wage war a just war must be initiated by a political authority within a political system that allows distinctions of justice dictatorships e g hitler s regime or deceptive military actions e g the 1969 us bombing of cambodia are typically considered as violations of this criterion the importance of this condition is key plainly we cannot have a genuine process of judging a just war within a system that represses the process of genuine justice a just war must be initiated by a political authority within a political system that allows distinctions of justice 77 probability of success according to this principle there must be good grounds for concluding that aims of the just war are achievable 78 this principle emphasizes that mass violence must not be undertaken if it is unlikely to secure the just cause 79 this criterion is to avoid invasion for invasion s sake and links to the proportionality criteria one cannot invade if there is no chance of actually winning however wars are fought with imperfect knowledge so one must simply be able to make a logical case that one can win there is no way to know this in advance these criteria move the conversation from moral and theoretical grounds to practical grounds 80 essentially this is meant to gather coalition building and win approval of other state actors last resort the principle of last resort stipulates that all non violent options must first be exhausted before the use of force can be justified diplomatic options sanctions and other non military methods must be attempted or validly ruled out before the engagement of hostilities further in regard to the amount of harm proportionally the principle of last resort would support using small intervention forces first and then escalating rather than starting a war with massive force such as carpet bombing or nuclear warfare 81 just cause the reason for going to war needs to be just and cannot therefore be solely 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