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here are historical literary standards such as the closely related braj bhasha and the more distant awadhi as well as recently established standard languages based on what were once considered hindi dialects maithili and dogri other varieties such as rajasthani are often considered distinct languages but have no standard form caribbean hindi and fijian hindi also differ significantly from the sanskritized standard hindi spoken in india citation needed malay edit main articles malay language comparison of standard malay and indonesian and malay trade and creole languages the malay language has many local dialects and creolized versions but it has two main normative varieties which are malaysian malay and indonesian indonesian was codified by indonesia as its own lingua franca based on the dialect spoken in the riau islands whereas malaysian malay was codified based on the dialect of johor 30 thus both lects have the same dialectal basis and linguistic sources still tend to treat the two standards as different forms of a single language 31 in popular parlance however the two varieties are often thought of by whom as distinct tongues in their own rights due to the growing divergence between them and for political reasons nevertheless they retain a high degree of mutual intelligibility despite a number of differences in vocabulary including many false friends and grammar citation needed malayalam edit malayalam is a pluricentric language with historically more than one written form malayalam script is officially recognized but there are other standardized varieties such as arabi malayalam of mappila muslims karshoni of saint thomas christians and judeo malayalam of cochin jews citation needed persian edit the persian language has three standard varieties with official status in iran locally known as farsi afghanistan officially known as dari and tajikistan officially known as tajik the standard forms of the three are based on the tehrani kabuli and dushanbe varieties respectively citation needed the persian alphabet is used for both farsi iranian and dari afghan traditionally tajiki is also written with perso arabic script in order to increase literacy a latin alphabet based on the common turkic alphabet was introduced in 1917 later in the late 1930s the tajik soviet socialist republic promoted the use of cyrillic alphabet which remains the most widely used system today attempts to reintroduce the perso arabic script were made 32 the language spoken by bukharan jews is called bukhori or bukharian and is written in hebrew alphabet portuguese edit apart from the galician question portuguese varies mainly between brazilian portuguese and european portuguese also known as lusitanian portuguese standard portuguese or even reduplicated portuguese portuguese both varieties have undergone significant and divergent developments in phonology and the grammar of their pronominal systems the result is that communication between the two varieties of the language without previous exposure can be occasionally difficult although speakers of european portuguese tend to understand brazilian portuguese better than vice versa due to the heavy exposure to music soap operas etc from brazil word ordering can be dramatically different between european and brazilian portuguese without significantly hampering mutual intelligibility 33 a unified orthography for all the varieties including a limited number of words with dual spelling has been approved by the national legislatures of the portuguese speaking countries and is now official see spelling reforms of portuguese for additional details formal written standards remain grammatically close to each other despite some minor syntactic differences african portuguese and asian portuguese are based on the standard european dialect but have undergone their own phonetic and grammatical developments sometimes reminiscent of the spoken brazilian variant a number of creoles of portuguese have developed in african countries for example in guinea bissau and on the island of são tomé 33 serbo croatian edit see also language secessionism in serbo croatian serbo croatian is a pluricentric language 34 with four standards bosnian croatian montenegrin and serbian promoted in bosnia and herzegovina croatia montenegro and serbia 35 36 37 38 39 40 these standards do differ slightly but do not hinder mutual intelligibility 41 42 43 44 45 46 rather as all four standardised varieties are based on the prestige shtokavian dialect major differences in intelligibility are identified not on the basis of standardised varieties but rather dialects like kajkavian and chakavian 38 lexical differences between the ethnic variants are extremely limited even when compared with those between closely related slavic languages such as standard czech and slovak bulgarian and macedonian and grammatical differences are even less pronounced more importantly complete understanding between the ethnic variants of the standard language makes translation and second language teaching impossible 40 spanish edit main article spanish dialects and varieties spanish has both national and regional linguistic norms which vary in terms of vocabulary grammar and pronunciation but all varieties are mutually intelligible and the same orthographic rules are shared throughout 47 in spain standard spanish is based upon the speech of educated speakers from madrid 48 all varieties spoken in the iberian peninsula are grouped as peninsular spanish canarian spanish spoken in the canary islands along with spanish spoken in the americas including spanish spoken in the united states central american spanish mexican spanish andean spanish and caribbean spanish are particularly related to andalusian spanish the united states is now the world s second largest spanish speaking country after mexico in total number of speakers l1 and l2 speakers a report said there are 41 million l1 spanish speakers and another 11 6 million l2 speakers in the u s this puts the us ahead of colombia 48 million and spain 46 million and second only to mexico 121 million 49 50 the spanish of latin americans has a growing influence on the language across the globe through music culture and television produced using the language of the largely bilingual speech community of us latinos 51 52 53 in argentina and uruguay the spanish standard is based on the local dialects of buenos aires and montevideo this is known as rioplatense spanish from rio de la plata river plate and is distinguishable from other standard spanish dialects by voseo in colombia rolo a name for the dialect of bogotá is valued for its clear pronunciation 54 the judeo spanish also known as ladino not to be confused with latino spoken by sephardi jews can be found in israel and elsewhere it is usually considered a separate language 55 swedish edit two varieties exist citation needed though only one written standard remains regulated by the swedish academy of sweden rikssvenska literally realm swedish also less commonly known as högsvenska high swedish in finland the official language of sweden and finlandssvenska which alongside finnish is the other official language of finland there are differences in vocabulary and grammar with the variety used in finland remaining a little more conservative the most marked differences are in pronunciation and intonation whereas swedish speakers from sweden usually pronounce the so called tj sound as ɕ this phoneme is usually pronounced by a finland swede as t͡ʃ in addition the two tones that are characteristic of swedish and norwegian are absent from most finnish dialects of swedish which have an intonation reminiscent of finnish and thus sound more monotonous when compared to rikssvenska there are dialects that could be considered different languages due to long periods of isolation and geographical separation from the central dialects of svealand and götaland that came to constitute the base for the standard rikssvenska dialects such as elfdalian jamtlandic and gutnish all differ as much or more from standard swedish than the standard varieties of danish some of them have a standardized orthography but the swedish government has not granted any of them official recognition as regional languages and continues to look upon them as dialects of swedish most of them are severely endangered and spoken by elderly people in the countryside tamil edit the vast majority of tamil speakers reside in southern india where it is the official language of tamil nadu and of puducherry and one of 22 languages listed in the eighth schedule to the constitution of india it is also one of two official languages in sri lanka one of four official languages in singapore and is used as the medium of instruction in government aided tamil primary schools in malaysia other parts of the world have tamil speaking populations but are not loci of planned development 56 tamil is diglossic with the literary variant used in books poetry speeches and news broadcasts while the spoken variant is used in everyday speech online messaging and movies while there are significant differences in the standard spoken forms of the different countries the literary register is mostly uniform with some differences in semantics that are not perceived by native speakers there has been no attempt to compile a dictionary of sri lankan tamil 57 as a result of the pure tamil movement indian tamil tends to avoid loanwords to a greater extent than sri lankan tamil coinages of new technical terms also differ between the two 58 tamil policy in singapore and malaysia tends to follow that of tamil nadu regarding linguistic purism and technical coinages 59 there are some spelling differences particularly in the greater use of grantha letters to write loanwords and foreign names in sri lanka singapore and malaysia the tamil nadu script reform of 1978 has been accepted in singapore and malaysia but not sri lanka 60 others edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed february 2022 learn how and when to remove this message standard irish gaeilge scottish gaelic and possibly manx can be viewed as three standards arisen through divergence from the classical gaelic norm via orthographic reforms komi a uralic language spoken in northeastern european russia has official standards for its komi zyrian and komi permyak dialects kurdish language has two main literary norms kurmanji northern kurdish and sorani central kurdish the zaza gorani languages spoken by some kurds are occasionally considered to be kurdish as well despite not being mutually intelligible citation needed for most of its history hebrew did not have a center the grammar and lexicon were dominated by the canonical texts but when the pronunciation was standardised for the first time its users were already scattered therefore three main forms of pronunciations developed particularly for the purpose of prayer ashkenazi sephardi and temani when hebrew was revived as a spoken language there was a discussion about which pronunciation should be used ultimately the sephardi pronunciation was chosen even though most of the speakers at the time were of ashkenazi background because it was considered more authentic the standard israeli pronunciation of today is not identical to the sephardi but is somewhat of a merger with ashkenazi influences and interpretation the ashkenazi pronunciation is still used in israel by haredim in prayer and by jewish communities outside of israel lao and isan the situation in thailand is in stark contrast to laos where the lao language is actively promoted as a language of national unity laotian lao people are very conscious of their distinct non thai language and although influenced by thai language media and culture strive to maintain good lao although spelling has changed the lao speakers in laos continue to use a modified form of the tai noi script the modern lao alphabet 61 norwegian consists of a multitude of spoken dialects displaying a great deal of variation in pronunciation and to a somewhat lesser extent vocabulary with no officially recognized standard spoken norwegian but see urban east norwegian all norwegian dialects are mutually intelligible to a certain extent there are two written standards bokmål book language based on danish danish and norwegian bokmål are mutually intelligible languages with significant differences primarily in pronunciation rather than vocabulary or grammar and nynorsk modern lit new norwegian based primarily on rural norwegian dialects pashto has three official standard varieties central pashto which is the most prestigious citation needed standard dialect also used in kabul northern pashto and southern pashto romance languages gallo italian languages include a great variety of dialects some mutually unintelligible and various written standards unrecognised both by italy and switzerland lombard piedmontese friulian and istriot orthographies exist with varying degrees of territorial specificity romanian in romania and that in moldova during the soviet era but nowadays romania and moldova use the same standard of romanian sardinian consists of a conglomerate of spoken dialects displaying a significant degree of variation in phonetics and sometimes vocabulary the spanish subdivision of sardinia into two administrative areas led to the emergence of two separate orthographies logudorese and campidanese as standardized varieties of the same language ukrainian and rusyn priashiv prešov lemko pannonian are either considered to be standardized varieties of the same language or separate languages dutch is considered pluricentric with recognised varieties in suriname abc islands belgium and the netherlands papiamento is pluricentric with two standardised orthographies one used on the island of aruba and the other on the islands of curaçao and bonaire the aruban orthography is more etymological in nature while the other is more phonemic among the differences between the two standards one obvious difference is the way the name of the language is written in aruba it is written papiament o while in curaçao and bonaire it is written papiament u the governments of curaçao and aruba formally standardised orthographic rules in 1976 and 1977 respectively 62 63 the albanian language has two main varieties gheg and tosk gheg is spoken to the north and tosk spoken to the south of the shkumbin river standard albanian is a standardised form of spoken albanian based on tosk the belarusian language features two orthographic standards official belarusian sometimes referred to as narkamaŭka and taraškievica also known as classical orthography the division stems from 1933 reform believed by some to be an attempt to artificially similarize belarusian and russian languages originally these standards differed only in written form but due to taraškievica ...
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