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s culture and society are better understood as the product of dynamic interactions between social actors and structure 1 anthony giddens and michel de certeau were also foundational to the theory in the late 1970s and 1980s 2 premise edit practices are conceptualized as what people do or an individual s performance carried out in everyday life bourdieu s theory of practice sets up a relationship between structure and the habitus and practice of the individual agent dealing with the relationship between the objective structures and the cognitive and motivating structures which they produce and which tend to reproduce them 3 what is perceived and experienced as culture is the result of dynamic interaction of internal and external structures individual performance practice and strategy strategy is based on existing structures but it exists from the actions of individuals seeking to pursue their own interests bourdieu describes structure as the products of historical practices and are constantly reproduced and transformed by historical practices whose productive principle is itself the product of the structures which it consequently tends to reproduce 4 according to practice theory social actors are not just shaped by their social world they shape it as well since bourdieu s formulation practice theory has been expanded by sociologists anthropologists international relation scholars and feminist scholars among others habitus edit main article habitus along with practices habitus is a key concept in practice theory bourdieu defined habitus as a structuring structure which organizes practices and the perception of practices 1984 170 first proposed by philosopher marcel mauss bourdieu uses the term habitus to refer to patterns of thought and behavior which are deeply internalized structures habitus is composed of social conventions rules values etc that guide our everyday practices these mental structures are representations of the external social structures people interact with on a daily basis they inform our practice and give meaning to the world and are what drives us to behave in accordance with social and cultural conventions habitus is also influenced by external individual forces such as confronting a new social norm or a new way of doing things like structure habitus is also the product of historical events 5 practice theory is also widely used to analyze social behavior in modern societies the embodied component of the habitus is the hexis it is manifested as an individual s gait gesture postures accent etc a closely related notion to bourdieu s habitus is michel foucault s concept of discipline like habitus discipline is structure and power that have been impressed on the body forming permanent dispositions in contrast to bourdieu though foucault laid particular emphasis on the violence through which modern regimes e g prisons and asylums are used as a form of social control 6 practice theory is also widely used to analyze social behavior in modern societies doxa edit main article doxa another important concept to practice theory are doxa which are the internalized societal or field specific presuppositions that go without saying and are not up for negotiation the doxa is a constructed vision of reality so naturalized that it appears to be the only vision of reality it is the learned fundamental deep founded unconscious beliefs and values that are taken as self evident universals and inform an agent s actions and thoughts within a particular field an example is the belief that a year must have 365 days or that days must be 24 hours long the field represents a structured social space with its own rules schemes of domination legitimate opinions bourdieu uses the concept of field instead of analyzing societies solely in terms of classes for example fields in modern societies include arts education politics law and economy cultural capital is also part of practice theory and is directly related to strategy it is the intangible assets that enable actors to mobilize cultural authority power as part of strategy e g e g competencies education intellect style of speech dress social networks this is important in terms of an individual s strategy a later addition to practice theory is structuration coined by anthony giddens 7 in anthropology and sociology edit cultural anthropologist sherry ortner defines practice theory as a theory of history it is a theory of how social beings with their diverse motives and their diverse intentions make and transform in which they live 8 ortner developed what she terms cultural schemas to explain society s structural contradictions and agency 9 her engagement with practice theory focuses on how agents react to cope with or actively appropriate 10 external structures these responses of agents are bound or enabled by the cultural schemas which are often rooted in the contradictions of society s structure and habitus of the agent agents create broader social narratives practices unique to their specific culture from multiple schemas the many available to agents schemas woven to a social narrative help to give society its distinctiveness and coherence ortner s agent is loosely structured their practice is constituted of how they respond to the schemas 11 british sociologist anthony giddens extended practice theory with his concept of structuration structuration is based on his previous work on the duality of structure the idea that the agency of social actors and structure are inseparable and co create one another agency according to giddens is neither free will or the intentionality of actions but the capacity of the agent to act the agency of individuals is constrained and enabled by structure in turn structure is created transformed and reproduced through the actions of agents giddens identified two forms of consciousness that inform the knowledgeable agent s actions practical consciousness and discursive consciousness 12 7 influenced edit gender theory edit judith butler s work on gender and sex is based on performance and practice theory in gender trouble 1990 and performative acts and gender constitution 1988 butler advances their concept of gender performativity they argue that all gender and sexual identities are constructs these identities are not real or innately natural and they do not express any inner reality instead gender and sexuality are constituted by performance meaning the everyday repetition of acts that reaffirm these identities the individual performs gender and then that identity is validated by society 13 communities of practice and learning as practice edit jean lave and etienne wenger draw from practice theory to conceptualize communities of practice as a place of learning roddick and ann b stahl summarize communities of practice as involving embodied action and continuously renewed relations between understanding and experience more and less skilled practitioners and the objects and communities with which practitioners interact 14 communities of practice center the relationship of the agent the activity engaged in and community which are co created and relational to one another learning and apprenticeship within practice communities are processes that place individual experience and everyday practice in active discourse with the broader context of their society according to wenger and lave learning is situated through practice of novices and expert practitioners 15 16 more recent approaches extend the scope to issues such as agency material and interaction 17 18 other theories of practice edit schatzki s theory of practice edit in the 1990s theodore schatzki developed an alternative theory of practice in social practices 1996 and the site of the social 2002 19 his basic premise is that people do what makes sense for them to do and derives from the work of martin heidegger and ludwig wittgenstein practices make up people s horizon of intelligibility 20 schatzki defines practices as open ended spatial temporal manifolds of actions schatzki 2005 p 471 and also as sets of hierarchically organized doings sayings tasks and projects 21 such practices consist of four main elements 1 practical understanding knowing how to x knowing how to identify x ings and knowing how to prompt as well as respond to x ings idem p 77 2 rules explicit formulations principles precepts and instructions that enjoin direct or remonstrate people to perform specific actions idem p 79 3 teleo affective structure a range of normativized and hierarchically ordered ends projects and tasks to varying degrees allied with normativized emotions and even mood idem p 80 and 4 general understanding jaeggi s theory of social practice edit another alternative theory is from philosopher rahel jaeggi in a broad concept of economy economy as a social practice and the critique of capitalism 2018 in her theory of social practice practices take on a comprehensive and broad meaning being a set of individual recurrent actions that make part of the socio cultural fabric of society 1 there are four primary characteristics 1 social practices aren t just intentional actions that can be informed by explicit or implicit knowledge 2 social practices are not given facts i e it must be interpreted within a specific context for example to see someone hiding behind a tree and understand it as part of the game hide and seek and not as hiding from the police it s implicit its connection to the set of other practices and their interpretations as other games and the interpretative concept of game 3 3 social practices are regulated by norms which dictate how to carry on a practice and 4 social practices have immanent telos 4 jaeggi seeks to propose a critique of the capitalist economic system that focuses on the economic practices of individuals making it possible to understand the economic field in the broad sense since it allows establishing connections between capitalist practices and the practices in other social spheres 5 thus economic practices are conceived as a subcategory of social practices and are interconnected in various ways with other practices forming the sociocultural fabric of society this theoretical conception allows for a critique of the capitalist system based on the judgment of the inherent normative content of economic practices understanding them as part of the sociocultural fabric and therefore flawed in themselves 6 other important theorists edit william hanks sherry ortner marshall sahlins andreas reckwitz jean lave davide nicolini elizabeth shove silvia gherardi michel foucault bruno latour michel callon references edit a b moore jerry d 2012 visions of culture an introduction to anthropological theories and theorists 4th ed lanham md altamira press isbn 978 0759122185 postill john bräuchler birgit 2010 theorising media and practice new york berghahn books pp 4 5 isbn 978 1 84545 741 9 a b bourdieu pierre 1977 outline of a theory of practice cambridge u k cambridge university press p 82 isbn 978 0521291644 a b bourdieu pierre 1977 outline of a theory of practice cambridge u k cambridge university press p 83 isbn 978 0521291644 a b bourdieu pierre 1977 outline of a theory of practice cambridge u k cambridge university press isbn 978 0521291644 a b postill j 2010 introduction in bräuchler b j postill eds theorising media and practice oxford and new york berghahn isbn 978 1 84545 741 9 a b ahearn laura m october 2001 language and agency annual review of anthropology 30 1 109 137 doi 10 1146 annurev anthro 30 1 109 ortner sherry b 1989 high religion a cultural and political history of sherpa buddhism princeton n j princeton university press p 193 isbn 9780691028439 ahearn laura m october 2001 language and agency annual review of anthropology 30 1 120 doi 10 1146 annurev anthro 30 1 109 ortner sherry b 1989 high religion a cultural and political history of sherpa buddhism princeton n j princeton university press p 200 isbn 9780691028439 moore jerry d 1997 visions of culture an introduction to anthropological theories and theorists walnut creek calif altamira press isbn 978 0803970977 giddens anthony 1986 the constitution of society outline of the theory of structuration 1st pbk ed berkeley university of california press isbn 978 0520057289 butler judith 1990 gender trouble feminism and the subversion of identity new york ny routledge isbn 9780415900423 roddick andrew p stahl anne b 2016 knowledge in motion constellations of learning across time and place tucson the university of arizona press p 3 isbn 9780816533749 roddick andrew p stahl anne b 2016 knowledge in motion constellations of learning across time and place tucson the university of arizona press p 7 isbn 9780816533749 lave jean wenger etienne 27 september 1991 situated learning legitimate peripheral participation doi 10 1017 cbo9780511815355 isbn 9780521413084 van houten maarten matheus 2023 01 01 professional tacit knowledge sharing in practice agency boundaries and commitment journal of workplace learning 35 9 197 217 doi 10 1108 jwl 02 2023 0025 issn 1366 5626 hager paul lee alison reich ann 2012 problematising practice reconceptualising learning and imagining change professional and practice based learning dordrecht springer netherlands pp 1 14 doi 10 1007 978 94 007 4774 6_1 isbn 978 94 007 4773 9 retrieved 2024 02 27 the site of the social 2002 nicolini 2014 p 164 schatzki 2002 p 73 bibliography edit ahearn laura m 2001 language and agency annual review of anthropology 30 1 annual reviews 109 137 doi 10 1146 annurev anthro 30 1 109 issn 0084 6570 archer margaret s 2003 structure agency and the internal conversation cambridge university press bourdieu pierre 1972 1977 outline of a theory of practice trans richard nice cambridge university press bourdieu pierre 1990 the logic of practice trans richard nice polity press calhoun craig edward lipuma and moishe postone 1993 bourdieu critical perspectives university of chicago press de certeau michel 1984 foucault and bourdieu in the practice of everyday life trans rendall s f university of california press gherardi s 2014 how to conduct a practice based study problems and methods edward elgar pub gherardi s 2006 organizational knowledge the texture of workplace learning wiley giddens anthony 1979 central problems in social theory action structure and contradiction in social analysis university of california press s jaeggi rahel 2018 economy as social practice journal for cultural research 22 2 https doi org 10 1080 14797585 2018 1461355 giddens anthony 1984 the constitution of society outline of a theory of structuration polity press moore jerry d 2000 visions of culture an introduction to anthropological theories and theorists rowman altamira morris rosalind c 1995 all made up performance theory and the new anthropology of sex and gender annual review of anthropology 24 1 567 592 nicolini davide practice theory work and organization an introduction oup oxford 2012 ortner sherry b 2006 anthrop...