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hese had difficulty establishing themselves in the contemporary art market which still preferred history paintings and portraits 30 in europe as john ruskin said 31 and sir kenneth clark confirmed landscape painting was the chief artistic creation of the nineteenth century and the dominant art with the result that in the following period people were apt to assume that the appreciation of natural beauty and the painting of landscape is a normal and enduring part of our spiritual activity 32 in clark s analysis underlying european ways to convert the complexity of landscape to an idea were four fundamental approaches the acceptance of descriptive symbols a curiosity about the facts of nature the creation of fantasy to allay deep rooted fears of nature and the belief in a golden age of harmony and order which might be retrieved the 18th century was also a great age for the topographical print depicting more or less accurately a real view in a way that landscape painting rarely did initially these were mostly centred on a building but over the course of the century with the growth of the romantic movement pure landscapes became more common the topographical print often intended to be framed and hung on a wall remained a very popular medium into the 20th century but was often classed as a lower form of art than an imagined landscape cowley place near exeter by francis towne c 1812 landscapes in watercolour on paper became a distinct specialism above all in england where a particular tradition of talented artists who only or almost entirely painted landscape watercolours developed as it did not in other countries these were very often real views though sometimes the compositions were adjusted for artistic effect the paintings sold relatively cheaply but were far quicker to produce these professionals could augment their income by training the armies of amateurs who also painted 33 leading artists included john robert cozens francis towne thomas girtin michael angelo rooker william pars thomas hearne and john warwick smith all in the late 18th century and john glover joseph mallord william turner john varley john sell cotman anthony copley fielding and samuel palmer in the early 19th 34 19th and 20th centuries edit caspar david friedrich wanderer above the sea of fog 1818 a classic image of german romanticism the romantic movement intensified the existing interest in landscape art and remote and wild landscapes which had been one recurring element in earlier landscape art now became more prominent the german caspar david friedrich had a distinctive style influenced by his danish training where a distinct national style drawing on the dutch 17th century example had developed to this he added a quasi mystical romanticism french painters were slower to develop landscape painting but from about the 1830s jean baptiste camille corot and other painters in the barbizon school established a french landscape tradition that would become the most influential in europe for a century with the impressionists and post impressionists for the first time making landscape painting the main source of general stylistic innovation across all types of painting maksymilian gierymski a hunting party polish 19th century realism 1871 the nationalism of the new united provinces had been a factor in the popularity of dutch 17th century landscape painting and in the 19th century as other nations attempted to develop distinctive national schools of painting the attempt to express the special nature of the landscape of the homeland became a general tendency in russia as in america the gigantic size of paintings was itself a nationalist statement in poland the main representatives of landscape painting in the second part of the 19th century were maksymilian gierymski józef chełmoński and stanisław masłowski 35 36 37 in spain the main promoter of the genre was the belgium born painter carlos de haes one of the most active landscape professors at the academy of fine arts of san fernando in madrid since 1857 after studying with the great flemish landscape masters he developed his technique to paint outdoors 38 back in spain haes took his students with him to paint in the countryside under his teaching the painters proliferated and took advantage of the new railway system to explore the furthest corners of the nation s topography 39 40 carlos de haes los picos de europa 1876 in the united states the hudson river school prominent in the middle to late 19th century is probably the best known native development in landscape art these painters created works of mammoth scale that attempted to capture the epic scope of the landscapes that inspired them the work of thomas cole the school s generally acknowledged founder has much in common with the philosophical ideals of european landscape paintings a kind of secular faith in the spiritual benefits to be gained from the contemplation of natural beauty some of the later hudson river school artists such as albert bierstadt created less comforting works that placed a greater emphasis with a great deal of romantic exaggeration on the raw even terrifying power of nature frederic edwin church a student of cole synthesized the ideas of his contemporaries with those of european old masters and the writings of john ruskin and alexander von humboldt to become the foremost american landscape painter of the century 41 the best examples of canadian landscape art can be found in the works of the group of seven prominent in the 1920s 42 although certainly less dominant in the period after world war i many significant artists still painted landscapes in the wide variety of styles exemplified by edvard munch georgia o keeffe charles e burchfield neil welliver alex katz milton avery peter doig andrew wyeth david hockney and sidney nolan gallery edit john constable 1821 the hay wain early romanticism joseph mallord william turner the park at petworth house c 1830 frederic edwin church the heart of the andes 1859 church was part of the american hudson river school ivan aivazovsky 1863 the caucasus late romanticism jean baptiste camille corot c 1867 ville d avray national gallery of art washington dc barbizon school camille pissarro lordship lane station east dulwich london england c 1870 impressionism paul cézanne mont sainte victoire 1882 1885 metropolitan museum of art post impressionism vincent van gogh the starry night 1889 the museum of modern art new york city post impressionism claude monet branch of the seine near giverny 1897 the impressionists often though by no means always painted en plein air ivan shishkin rain in an oak forest 1891 tretyakov gallery peredvizhniki isaac levitan above eternal peace 1894 henry bates joel s 1890 s scottish highlands a late romantic stylized interpretation of nature typical of victorian painting giving directions by george willis pryce stanisław masłowski polish landscape painter moonrise 1884 oil on canvas national museum kraków sukiennice museum div stanisław masłowski łubin droga polna lupin a cart way watercolor 1909 national museum in warsaw east asian tradition edit china edit see also shan shui court style panorama along the river during the qingming festival an 18th century copy of 12th century song dynasty original by chinese artist zhang zeduan zhang s original painting is revered by scholars as one of chinese civilization s greatest masterpieces 43 the scroll begins at the right end and culminates above as the emperor boards his yacht to join the festive boats on the river note the exceptionally large viewing stones placed at the far edge of the inlet kuo hsi chinese 郭熙 pinyin guō xī clearing autumn skies over mountains and valleys northern song dynasty c 1070 detail from a horizontal scroll 44 ma yuan chinese 馬遠 1160 1225 dancing and singing peasants returning from work chinese 踏歌圖 13th century southern song chinese collected in the palace museum dong qichang landscape 1597 dong qichang was a high ranking but cantankerous ming civil servant who valued expressiveness over delicacy with collector s seals and poems landscape painting has been called china s greatest contribution to the art of the world 45 and owes its special character to the taoist daoist tradition in chinese culture 46 william watson notes that it has been said that the role of landscape art in chinese painting corresponds to that of the nude in the west as a theme unvarying in itself but made the vehicle of infinite nuances of vision and feeling 47 there are increasingly sophisticated landscape backgrounds to figure subjects showing hunting farming or animals from the han dynasty onward with surviving examples mostly in stone or clay reliefs from tombs which are presumed to follow the prevailing styles in painting no doubt without capturing the full effect of the original paintings 48 the exact status of the later copies of reputed works by famous painters many of whom are recorded in literature before the 10th century is unclear one example is a famous 8th century painting from the imperial collection titled the emperor ming huang traveling in shu this shows the entourage riding through vertiginous mountains of the type typical of later paintings but is in full colour producing an overall pattern that is almost persian in what was evidently a popular and fashionable court style 49 the decisive shift to a monochrome landscape style almost devoid of figures is attributed to wang wei 699 759 also famous as a poet mostly only copies of his works survive 50 from the 10th century onward an increasing number of original paintings survive and the best works of the song dynasty 960 1279 southern school remain among the most highly regarded in what has been an uninterrupted tradition to the present day chinese convention valued the paintings of the amateur scholar gentleman often a poet as well over those produced by professionals though the situation was more complex than that 51 if they include any figures they are very often such persons or sages contemplating the mountains famous works have accumulated numbers of red appreciation seals and often poems added by later owners the qianlong emperor 1711 1799 was a prolific adder of his own poems following earlier emperors the shan shui tradition was never intended to represent actual locations even when named after them as in the convention of the eight views 52 a different style produced by workshops of professional court artists painted official views of imperial tours and ceremonies with the primary emphasis on highly detailed scenes of crowded cities and grand ceremonials from a high viewpoint these were painted on scrolls of enormous length in bright colour example below chinese sculpture also achieves the difficult feat of creating effective landscapes in three dimensions there is a long tradition of the appreciation of viewing stones naturally formed boulders typically limestone from the banks of mountain rivers that has been eroded into fantastic shapes were transported to the courtyards and gardens of the literati probably associated with these is the tradition of carving much smaller boulders of jade or some other semi precious stone into the shape of a mountain including tiny figures of monks or sages chinese gardens also developed a highly sophisticated aesthetic much earlier than those in the west the karensansui or japanese dry garden of zen buddhism takes the garden even closer to being a work of sculpture representing a highly abstracted landscape li cheng chinese 李成 pinyin lǐ chéng wade giles li ch eng 919 967 luxuriant forest among distant peaks detail liaoning provincial museum 10th century china fan kuan chinese 范寬 pinyin fàn kuān wade giles fan k uan c 960 c 1030 travellers among mountains and streams 谿山行旅 ink and slight color on silk dimensions of 6¾ ft x 2½ ft 11th century china 53 national palace museum taipei 54 detail from the hand scroll pure and remote view of streams and mountains one of xia gui s most important works 13th century china li kan bamboos and rock c 1300 ad china tao chi late 17th century china tang yin a fisher in autumn 1523 ad china shen zhou poet on a mountain c 1500 painting and poem by shen zhou white clouds encircle the mountain waist like a sash stone steps mount high into the void where the narrow path leads far alone leaning on my rustic staff i gaze idly into the distance my longing for the notes of a flute is answered in the murmurings of the gorge 55 cai han and jin xiaozhu autumn flowers and white pheasants 17th century china shitao pine pavilion near a spring 1675 collection of the shanghai museum 17th century china japan edit four from a set of sixteen sliding room partitions made for a 16th century japanese abbot typically for later japanese landscapes the main focus is on a feature in the foreground see also list of national treasures of japan paintings japanese art initially adapted chinese styles to reflect their interest in narrative themes in art with scenes set in landscapes mixing with those showing palace or city scenes using the same high view point cutting away roofs as necessary these appeared in the very long yamato e scrolls of scenes illustrating the tale of genji and other subjects mostly from the 12th and 13th centuries the concept of the gentleman amateur painter had little resonance in feudal japan where artists were generally professionals with a strong bond to their master and his school rather than the classic artists from the distant past from which chinese painters tended to draw their inspiration 56 painting was initially fully coloured often brightly so and the landscape never overwhelms the figures who are often rather oversized the scene from the biography of the priest ippen illustrated below is from a scroll that in full measures 37 8 cm 802 0 cm for only one of twelve scrolls illustrating the life of a buddhist monk like their western counterparts monasteries and temples commissioned many such works and these have had a better chance of survival than courtly equivalents 57 even rarer are survivals of landscape byōbu folding screens and hanging scrolls which seem to have common in court circles the tale of genji has an episode where members of the court produce the best paintings from their collections for a competition these were closer to chinese shan shui but still fully coloured 58 many more pure landscape subjects survive from the 15th century onward several key artists are zen buddhist clergy and worked in a monochrome style with greater emphasis on brush strokes in the chinese manner some schools adopted a less refined style with smaller views giving greater emphasis to the foreground a type of image that had an enduring appeal for japanese artists and came to be called the japanese style is in fact first found in china this combines one or more large birds animals or trees in the foreground typically to one side in a horizontal composition with a wider landscape beyond often ...
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