Meta tags:
Headings (most frequently used words):
and, saint, war, jus, just, traditionalists, revisionists, ancient, christian, bellum, of, theory, contents, origins, criteria, see, also, references, further, reading, external, links, egypt, india, east, asian, greece, rome, views, tradition, ad, in, bello, post, ambrose, augustine, isidore, seville, carolingian, period, peace, truce, god, thomas, aquinas, renaissance, humanists, first, world, contemporary, catholic, doctrine, evangelical, lutheran, churches, russian, orthodox, church,
Text of the page (most frequently used words):
the (548), war (347), and (242), just (176), peace (85), that (85), #theory (74), for (70), military (45), not (44), from (42), jus (40), with (39), was (34), are (34), edit (33), isbn (30), may (29), university (29), #bellum (29), retrieved (28), press (28), who (27), must (27), philosophy (25), ethics (25), international (25), have (25), this (24), law (24), force (23), aquinas (22), church (22), wars (21), christian (21), non (20), catholic (20), their (20), justice (20), right (20), has (20), violence (19), other (19), augustine (19), post (19), saint (19), tradition (18), only (18), century (17), combatants (17), warfare (17), they (17), use (16), political (16), moral (16), god (16), also (16), doctrine (15), defense (15), oxford (15), when (15), bello (15), criteria (15), which (15), been (15), first (15), thomas (14), world (14), religious (14), 978 (14), conduct (13), history (13), cause (13), such (13), doi (13), state (13), but (13), russian (12), all (12), anti (12), cicero (12), some (12), cambridge (12), his (12), medieval (12), can (12), were (12), could (12), view (11), authority (11), principle (11), conflict (11), good (11), against (11), archived (11), 2023 (11), ancient (11), there (11), between (11), people (11), justified (11), last (10), encyclopedia (10), march (10), nuclear (10), action (10), soldiers (10), pacifism (10), new (10), means (10), 2017 (10), revisionists (10), original (10), main (10), legitimate (10), wikipedia (9), april (9), social (9), human (9), one (9), studies (9), after (9), command (9), 2024 (9), unjust (9), traditional (9), resort (9), what (9), ages (9), early (9), wage (9), two (9), would (9), had (9), further (8), states (8), divine (8), evil (8), john (8), david (8), review (8), book (8), journal (8), 2013 (8), stanford (8), more (8), traditionalists (8), public (8), 2015 (8), should (8), egypt (8), orthodox (8), middle (8), enemies (8), isidore (8), roman (8), actions (8), considered (8), necessity (8), attack (8), its (8), about (7), links (7), control (7), day (7), intervention (7), civil (7), list (7), forces (7), women (7), movement (7), modern (7), morality (7), will (7), eds (7), robert (7), including (7), help (7), lazar (7), october (7), limits (7), christians (7), article (7), than (7), rules (7), within (7), government (7), therefore (7), avoid (7), arms (7), waged (7), ambrose (7), air (7), 2026 (6), articles (6), internet (6), united (6), category (6), japan (6), weapons (6), invasion (6), 2014 (6), principles (6), research (6), wrong (6), issn (6), 2007 (6), historical (6), battle (6), necessary (6), 2006 (6), guide (6), seth (6), 2020 (6), september (6), july (6), another (6), seville (6), period (6), security (6), them (6), scholars (6), views (6), well (6), through (6), justify (6), enemy (6), cannot (6), act (6), did (6), before (6), support (6), according (6), armed (6), justifiable (6), themselves (6), part (6), ideas (6), especially (6), toggle (5), text (5), under (5), using (5), page (5), latin (5), february (5), theology (5), israel (5), republic (5), east (5), 2022 (5), party (5), into (5), counter (5), related (5), 1975 (5), aristotle (5), normative (5), life (5), june (5), james (5), online (5), affairs (5), 21st (5), concept (5), origins (5), fight (5), contemporary (5), how (5), science (5), 2019 (5), case (5), com (5), laws (5), 2010 (5), pdf (5), limited (5), lutheran (5), gregory (5), holy (5), religion (5), western (5), even (5), morally (5), while (5), used (5), own (5), does (5), meant (5), proportionality (5), acts (5), towards (5), out (5), fought (5), move (5), intention (5), philosophers (5), nations (5), those (5), offensive (5), always (5), peaceful (5), self (5), truce (5), though (5), righteous (5), training (5), cavalry (5), contents (4), search (4), legal (4), policy (4), terms (4), august (4), reading (4), cs1 (4), national (4), russia (4), 2011 (4), american (4), third (4), violent (4), whole (4), universal (4), politics (4), direct (4), deterrence (4), include (4), churches (4), culture (4), ideology (4), rights (4), virtue (4), plato (4), concepts (4), 1999 (4), michael (4), 2003 (4), theories (4), man (4), america (4), critique (4), hans (4), london (4), york (4), defence (4), any (4), paul (4), routledge (4), offers (4), writings (4), three (4), need (4), 2018 (4), cite (4), 1093 (4), success (4), responsibility (4), protect (4), center (4), 2021 (4), francisco (4), william (4), classical (4), russell (4), frederick (4), motives (4), thinking (4), practice (4), warrior (4), rome (4), conquest (4), see (4), mass (4), however (4), both (4), based (4), rather (4), these (4), take (4), prisoners (4), taken (4), being (4), fighting (4), property (4), objective (4), circumstances (4), innocent (4), then (4), undertaken (4), way (4), system (4), certain (4), establishing (4), since (4), domination (4), warring (4), defensive (4), whether (4), basis (4), developed (4), evangelical (4), group (4), body (4), ensure (4), justly (4), renaissance (4), later (4), europe (4), information (4), carolingian (4), notion (4), order (4), campaign (4), egyptian (4), pharaoh (4), combat (4), special (4), hide (4), sidebar (4), safety (3), organization (3), ibid (3), ignored (3), uses (3), url (3), christianity (3), teaching (3), org (3), peacebuilding (3), kingdom (3), germany (3), canada (3), ukraine (3), protests (3), iraq (3), second (3), specific (3), resisters (3), industrial (3), make (3), love (3), economic (3), sanctions (3), recruitment (3), tactics (3), nonviolence (3), japanese (3), project (3), concert (3), among (3), appeasement (3), imperialism (3), anarcho (3), treaty (3), society (3), psychology (3), education (3), camp (3), pacifist (3), persons (3), methods (3), either (3), elements (3), metaphysics (3), nature (3), smith (3), stoic (3), confucian (3), value (3), work (3), technology (3), land (3), computer (3), applied (3), suffering (3), punishment (3), importance (3), rule (3), equality (3), duty (3), standard (3), our (3), concerning (3), most (3), current (3), terrorism (3), princeton (3), relation (3), spanish (3), today (3), kwon (3), crimes (3), holmes (3), recent (3), form (3), cox (3), rory (3), section (3), learn (3), read (3), annual (3), versus (3), brian (3), 2012 (3), foundations (3), 100 (3), humanitarian (3), conditions (3), development (3), 2001 (3), resource (3), crusades (3), 2009 (3), vitoria (3), ius (3), city (3), viii (3), formation (3), martin (3), luther (3), compendium (3), davidson (3), frowe (3), handbook (3), goetz (3), werner (3), perception (3), ninth (3), chronicles (3), militarisation (3), seems (3), missing (3), delahunty (3), returning (3), rutgers (3), hippo (3), officiis (3), iii (3), thought (3), india (3), iustum (3), broken (3), references (3), itself (3), particular (3), actors (3), leaders (3), responsibilities (3), theorists (3), outside (3), during (3), individuals (3), aggressor (3), treatment (3), whose (3), surrendered (3), threat (3), fair (3), governed (3), harm (3), caused (3), civilians (3), civilian (3), excessive (3), allows (3), prohibited (3), create (3), bombing (3), attacking (3), aircraft (3), grave (3), massive (3), grounds (3), authorities (3), process (3), aim (3), although (3), behalf (3), intentions (3), drew (3), stated (3), off (3), existing (3), slave (3), slaves (3), term (3), present (3), aid (3), permissible (3), lasting (3), still (3), hugo (3), grotius (3), established (3), cold (3), found (3), document (3), respect (3), sacred (3), given (3), emperor (3), men (3), usually (3), serious (3), cases (3), possible (3), important (3), nation (3), community (3), theologians (3), various (3), humanists (3), account (3), nevertheless (3), sin (3), decretum (3), clergy (3), soldier (3), depth (3), many (3), regarded (3), here (3), required (3), conventions (3), greece (3), claimed (3), novel (3), naval (3), space (3), cyber (3), fire (3), units (3), tools (3), subsection (3), languages (2), table (2), statement (2), code (2), contact (2), privacy (2), available (2), creative (2), commons (2), attribution (2), license (2), categories (2), wayback (2), cleanup (2), errors (2), language (2), date (2), unsourced (2), statements (2), short (2), description (2), wikidata (2), https (2), index (2), title (2), yale (2), total (2), calls (2), ceasefire (2), far (2), murderers (2), serve (2), resistance (2), psychological (2), aggression (2), global (2), power (2), draft (2), evasion (2), desertion (2), central (2), bell (2), show (2), promoting (2), enduring (2), festival (2), places (2), named (2), dialogue (2), books (2), art (2), media (2), soviet (2), green (2), antimilitarism (2), anarchism (2), ideologies (2), league (2), freedom (2), democratic (2), congress (2), conference (2), commission (2), socialist (2), common (2), conscientious (2), coalition (2), organizations (2), portal (2), outline (2), reasons (2), animal (2), liberation (2), 1930 (2), utilitarianism (2), morals (2), introduction (2), treatise (2), works (2), taylor (2), anscombe (2), foot (2), kant (2), butler (2), socrates (2), ethicists (2), secular (2), jewish (2), islamic (2), realism (2), cognitivism (2), dilemma (2), ideal (2), naturalism (2), sexual (2), medical (2), machine (2), environmental (2), engineering (2), discourse (2), intelligence (2), role (2), population (2), torture (2), greed (2), free (2), desert (2), conscience (2), compassion (2), autonomy (2), accountability (2), bbc (2), discussion (2), time (2), wikiquote (2), external (2), 2004 (2), 300 (2), debates (2), 1998 (2), perspectives (2), sepúlveda (2), discusses (2), 2005 (2), describing (2), rosicrucian (2), questions (2), volume (2), mark (2), 1992 (2), crawford (2), management (2), via (2), change (2), driscoll (2), thinkers (2), relevance (2), rethinking (2), charles (2), points (2), remove (2), message (2), please (2), improve (2), fall (2), edward (2), zalta (2), edu (2), ryan (2), maintain (2), lab (2), 1146 (2), annurev (2), polisci (2), 060314 (2), 112706 (2), 1017 (2), opinion (2), jstor (2), 1177 (2), brill (2), website (2), easterday (2), exploring (2), 968589 (2), acprof (2), oso (2), 9780199685899 (2), 003 (2), 0001 (2), january (2), sovereignty (2), jonathan (2), murray (2), rothbard (2), lenin (2), vladimir (2), marxists (2), archive (2), genrikh (2), antonovich (2), leer (2), 1869 (2), justwartheory (2), company (2), know (2), gentium (2), army (2), november (2), source (2), 2016 (2), 2000 (2), response (2), catechism (2), randall (2), archbishop (2), canterbury (2), dictionary (2), colet (2), helen (2), 9780199943418 (2), library (2), summa (2), theologica (2), reichberg (2), vii (2), 9781107019904 (2), combatant (2), 211 (2), 220 (2), manchester (2), boda (2), mihaly (2), ordeal (2), etymologies (2), quoted (2), fragment (2), dialog (2), laelius (2), character (2), lockwood (2), thornton (2), philarchive (2), ref (2), 250 (2), 249 (2), livy (2), 2nd (2), publica (2), greek (2), quarterly (2), raymond (2), louis (2), rowman (2), littlefield (2), sikhism (2), sikh (2), mughal (2), britannica (2), orend (2), miller (2), walter (2), english (2), easily (2), additionally (2), associated (2), era (2), led (2), generalized (2), individual (2), participate (2), responsible (2), revisionist (2), start (2), concerns (2), treaties (2), reconstruction (2), added (2), fact (2), battlefield (2), agreements (2), terrorists (2), largely (2), pursuit (2), context (2), treat (2), side (2), biological (2), captured (2), defeat (2), concrete (2), advantage (2), anticipated (2), justification (2), recourse (2), death (2), correct (2), distinction (2), directed (2), targets (2), airborne (2), neutral (2), directs (2), reason (2), needs (2), solely (2), punishing (2), imminent (2), basic (2), options (2), exhausted (2), engagement (2), hostilities (2), starting (2), aims (2), criterion (2), win (2), practical (2), essentially (2), initiated (2), distinctions (2), genuine (2), competent (2), norms (2), enable (2), consensus (2), centuries (2), situations (2), evils (2), evolved (2), christ (2), authorized (2), ethical (2), writes (2), coercive (2), already (2), try (2), impose (2), over (2), owner (2), owned (2), clearly (2), application (2), fatherland (2), deception (2), slavery (2), theorist (2), potential (2), concern (2), sometimes (2), attempt (2), might (2), ultimately (2), sermon (2), criticized (2), set (2), philosopher (2), declared (2), cardinal (2), issued (2), because (2), never (2), country (2), humanist (2), priests (2), same (2), neighbours (2), restoration (2), undesirable (2), gave (2), considers (2), orthodoxy (2), obedience (2), mercy (2), ruler (2), sword (2), earth (2), unfortunately (2), obligation (2), pope (2), following (2), legitimacy (2), decision (2), without (2), clear (2), proof (2), charter (2), council (2), area (2), possession (2), sufficient (2), seek (2), nor (2), citing (2), german (2), british (2), each (2), seeking (2), henry (2), asserted (2), met (2), upon (2), rightful (2), injustice (2), argued (2), extent (2), needed (2), killing (2), sovereign (2), reflected (2), detail (2), contemplated (2), bible (2), heavily (2), gratian (2), dominican (2), friar (2), significant (2), gratiani (2), contributed (2), where (2), version (2), dei (2), informing (2), unbelievers (2), texts (2), charlemagne (2), rulers (2), tours (2), declaration (2), immediately (2), fully (2), became (2), like (2), ultimate (2), goal (2), proper (2), disposition (2), judge (2), redress (2), private (2), core (2), writing (2), understood (2), philosophical (2), craft (2), across (2), coping (2), mechanism (2), held (2), argues (2), obliged (2), believed (2), defeated (2), personal (2), often (2), argue (2), example (2), thus (2), develop (2), chinese (2), dynasty (2), asian (2), dharamyudh (2), ever (2), chariots (2), gods (2), initiating (2), conquer (2), pharaohs (2), ability (2), declare (2), amun (2), guarantee (2), inclined (2), proposing (2), few (2), series (2), horses (2), fiction (2), strength (2), dominance (2), sea (2), martial (2), irregular (2), geneva (2), morale (2), base (2), chain (2), economy (2), conscription (2), ranks (2), engineers (2), staff (2), strategy (2), operational (2), maneuver (2), operation (2), drone (2), aerial (2), infantry (2), artillery (2), armor (2), data (2), gun (2), radar (2), guard (2), general (2), appearance (2), upload (2), file (2), changes (2), log (2), donate (2), menu (2), add, topic, mobile, cookie, statistics, developers, contacts, disclaimers, additional, apply, site, you, agree, registered, trademark, profit, wikimedia, foundation, inc, sharealike, rendered, parsoid, edited, utc, hidden, webarchive, template, periodical, script, unfit, containing, dmy, dates, 2025, matches, php, just_war_theory, oldid, 1371599624, lux, czech, gnd, databases, jammu, kashmir, france, switzerland, sudan, spain, netherlands, costa, rica, countries, convention, elimination, disarmament, taxation, landmines, gaza, libya, sri, lankan, iran, afghanistan, criticism, terror, vietnam, boer, 1812, opposition, aspects, tax, begets, turn, cheek, watching, teach, swords, ploughshares, refusal, walk, nonviolent, complex, lesson, munich, spending, flower, die, department, demilitarisation, escalation, resolution, disobedience, park, ins, bed, slogans, black, association, symbols, songs, plays, news, journalism, museums, nobel, prize, mother, proclamation, monuments, memorials, prizes, civilizations, imagine, piano, films, dances, yutel, cultural, testimony, influence, satyagraha, pacificism, nonkilling, interventionism, isolationism, hippie, finvenkismo, punks, ahimsa, crusade, unity, react, recycle, peaceworker, activists, organisations, greenham, ecopeace, counterculture, objectors, pink, boycott, divestment, advocates, wikiproject, rehabilitation, axiology, 1984, 1981, 1971, 1903, principia, ethica, 1887, genealogy, 1874, 1861, 1843, 1820, 1785, groundwork, 1780, legislation, 1759, sentiments, 1740, 1677, 450, kural, 322, nicomachean, nussbaum, korsgaard, azurmendi, adams, nagel, parfit, singer, hare, macintyre, frankena, mackie, williams, dewey, rawls, bonhoeffer, tillich, barth, moore, nietzsche, sidgwick, kierkegaard, mill, bentham, schopenhauer, hegel, hume, spinoza, valluvar, xunzi, mencius, diogenes, mozi, confucius, taoist, buddhist, kantian, feminist, existentialist, epicurean, aristotelian, schools, pluralism, universalism, skepticism, relativism, rationalism, prescriptivism, quasi, expressivism, emotivism, nihilism, intuitionism, euthyphro, constructivism, observer, subjectivism, axiological, absolutism, meta, uncertain, sentience, terraforming, programming, professional, nursing, meat, eating, marketing, business, bio, artificial, insects, focused, pragmatic, particularism, care, deontology, consequentialism, evolutionary, descriptive, fields, vow, vice, intrinsic, instrumental, utility, trust, sympathy, stewardship, precept, norm, imperative, hierarchy, courage, circle, expansion, agency, loyalty, liberty, immorality, honour, happiness, golden, fidelity, family, values, eudaimonia, etiquette, double, dignity, consent, casuistry, blame, radio, keane, niall, ferguson, catholicism, fieser, dowden, bradley, 37741658, oclc, 2161, 0002, quotations, 10978, arguing, walzer, steinhoff, uwe, covers, basics, controversial, revisited, donovan, oliver, nardin, terry, nájera, luna, myth, prophecy, juan, ginés, crusading, exhortación, ottoman, turks, bulletin, portuguese, mcmahan, jeff, macdonald, roberts, south, bend, 929569, cloverdale, padre, crosse, devonshire, epitaph, astonishing, story, somme, antecedents, washington, 813236, khawaja, irfan, larry, extended, democratiya, 1989, 4008, 6014, gutbrod, applies, 1918, point, fellowship, 911274, reference, answers, heindel, max, updated, 8264, 9260, continuum, fotion, nicholas, evans, editor, edinburgh, reappraisal, elshtain, jean, bethke, nyu, neta, countertenor, 9780691171890, near, churchman, why, 2002, 721, heinonline, ucla, subversion, brunsletter, brough, lango, harry, van, der, linden, albany, annotated, bibliography, suny, blattberg, taking, seriously, benson, richard, showing, position, tidings, editing, edition, uri, nodelman, archives, fall2023, entries, fiala, andrew, authors, cheyney, strongly, framework, flawed, spring, 1094, 2939, benestad, 8132, 1923, 2307, ctt3fgpjc, sagan, scott, valentino, benjamin, 444, 0892, 6794, s0892679419000431, 411, pattison, 268, 26419464, 0090, 5917, 0090591716669394, 242, nonideal, beyond, revisionism, traditionalism, 0813236513, thom, brooks, 187, 9004228504, jenifer, jennifer, iverson, jens, stahn, carsten, brabandere, eric, 0008, mégret, frédéric, 123, 25660075, 0272, 5037, s0272503700024022, 121, proceedings, asil, meeting, seybolt, 925243, failure, don, hubert, weiss, supplementary, report, centre, buchanan, allen, 0048, 3915, 1111, 1088, 4963, 00051, institutionalizing, 1978, 445, 159493143, s2cid, 004056397803900302, 427, theological, bases, interrelations, priorities, functions, childress, lewrockwell, socialism, wollenberg, erich, light, marxism, incompatibility, рипол, классик, 1ff, 9785458055901, critico, опыт, критико, исторического, исследования, законов, искусства, ведения, войны, opyt, kritiko, istoricheskogo, issledovaniya, zakonov, isskusstva, vedeniya, voyny, eppc, home, publications, rieff, norton, gutman, victor, salas, december, ave, maria, indios, dorling, kindersley, 345, 4053, 4778, saul, bridgeman, 1962, 256, parish, trinity, rectorship, manning, 1908, 1921, dear, reporter, ben, salmon, chapter, copied, knorre, boris, zygmont, aleksei, 3390, rel11010002, religions, militant, piety, return, traditions, alex, iowa, district, missouri, synod, saunders, liberia, editrice, vaticana, 1574551108, mews, stuart, baron, lambeth, 1848, biography, mackenzie, kathleen, dalhousie, 115, 114, classics, ethereal, sec, allmand, christopher, 253, 272, bachrach, 1215, vol, woodbridge, boydell, 217, 218, 359, greenwood, 251, christianitytoday, bitesize, forgiveness, 1980, 150, antiquity, marcia, colish, 1925, 33ff, kaser, goettingen, 1949, 22ff, catalano, torino, 1965, 14ff, harris, 1979, 161, republican, 327, linee, del, sistema, sovrannazionale, romano, das, altroemische, festivals, warde, fowler, xiii, xviii, ithaca, 1968, late, badian, digesta, libro, regolarum, modestinus, origines, philippicae, pro, rege, deiotauro, atticum, provinciis, consularibus, divinatio, caecilium, capelle, wilhelm, gruyter, 358, 9783112318744, perseus, digital, cian, rewriting, greco, roots, 9781134330225, samurai, friday, karl, interreligious, contribution, fenech, mcleod, 9781442236011, syan, hardip, singh, tauris, 252, 9781780762500, militancy, seventeenth, robinson, 9781351924528, comparative, perspective, expanding, 371, 10023, 17848, hdl, isq, sqx009, mchenry, blog, blogs, andersen, rodgers, kerry, lanham, 5381, 5992, 353, 323, schuck, 1994, shooting, stops, 984, 982, 111, guthrie, quinlan, structure, bloomsbury, 0747595571, fellmeth, aaron, horwitz, maurice, 536938, acref, 9780195369380, 001, marcus, tullius, 1913, robarts, toronto, heinemann, translation, constructs, replacing, abbreviated, quick, discouraged, footnotes, style, idem, loc, cit, israeli, palestinian, supreme, emergency, cost, benefit, analysis, distinctive, methodologies, nonreductive, question, criticisms, scope, objections, raised, pacifists, realists, placed, follow, level, collective, pertains, traditionalist, distinct, accountable, breaking, altering, align, different, viewpoints, rest, years, gary, bass, proposed, described, discipline, currently, construction, remediation, trials, reparations, deal, hostile, place, governs, termination, prosecution, criminals, publicly, labelled, idea, decide, labeling, labeled, actual, fault, lies, forfeit, honorable, anyone, bounds, iasiello, forcing, effects, controlled, rape, malum, longer, pose, otherwise, mistreat, intended, proportionate, favor, allowing, limit, unnecessary, destruction, sure, discern, balance, restriction, imposed, corrective, measure, severity, caught, residential, areas, committing, pows, moreover, permitted, injured, presenting, immediate, lethal, shipwrecked, parachuting, disabled, reprisal, once, begun, going, recapturing, things, done, danger, expressed, 1993, said, violation, populations, stipulates, diplomatic, attempted, validly, ruled, regard
Text of the page (random words):
ntury there has been significant debate between traditional just war theorists who largely support the existing law of war and develop arguments to support it and revisionists who reject many traditional assumptions although not necessarily advocating a change in the law 9 10 origins edit ancient egypt edit a 2017 study found that the just war tradition can be traced as far back as to ancient egypt 11 egyptian ethics of war usually centered on three main ideas these including the cosmological role of egypt the pharaoh as a divine office and executor of the will of the gods and the superiority of the egyptian state and population over all other states and people egyptian political theology held that the pharaoh had the exclusive legitimacy in justly initiating a war usually claimed to carry out the will of the gods senusret i in the twelfth dynasty claimed i was nursed to be a conqueror his atum s son and his protector he gave me to conquer what he conquered later pharaohs also considered their sonship of the god amun re as granting them absolute ability to declare war on the deity s behalf pharaohs often visited temples prior to initiating campaigns where the pharaoh was believed to receive their commands of war from the deities for example kamose claimed that i went north because i was strong enough to attack the asiatics through the command of amon the just of counsels a stele erected by thutmose iii at the temple of amun at karnak provides an unequivocal statement of the pharaoh s divine mandate to wage war on his enemies as the period of the new kingdom progressed and egypt heightened its territorial ambition so did the invocation of just war aid the justification of these efforts the universal principle of maat signifying order and justice was central to the egyptian notion of just war and its ability to guarantee egypt virtually no limits on what it could take do or use to guarantee the ambitions of the state 11 india edit the indian hindu epic the mahabharata offers the first written discussions of a just war dharma yuddha or righteous war in it one of five ruling brothers pandavas asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified a long discussion then ensues between the siblings establishing criteria like proportionality chariots cannot attack cavalry only other chariots no attacking people in distress just means no poisoned or barbed arrows just cause no attacking out of rage and fair treatment of captives and the wounded 12 in sikhism the term dharamyudh describes a war that is fought for just righteous or religious reasons especially in defence of one s own beliefs though some core tenets in the sikh religion are understood to emphasise peace and nonviolence especially before the 1606 execution of guru arjan by mughal emperor jahangir 13 military force may be justified if all peaceful means to settle a conflict have been exhausted thus resulting in a dharamyudh 14 east asian edit chinese philosophy produced a massive body of work on warfare much of it during the zhou dynasty especially the warring states era war was justified only as a last resort and only by the rightful sovereign however questioning the decision of the emperor concerning the necessity of a military action was not permissible the success of a military campaign was sufficient proof that the campaign had been righteous 15 japan did not develop its own doctrine of just war but between the 5th and the 7th centuries drew heavily from chinese philosophy and especially confucian views as part of the japanese campaign to take the northeastern island honshu japanese military action was portrayed as an effort to pacify the emishi people who were likened to bandits and wild hearted wolf cubs and accused of invading japan s frontier lands 16 ancient greece and rome edit the notion of just war in europe originates and is developed first in ancient greece and then in the roman empire 17 18 19 it was aristotle who first introduced the concept and terminology to the hellenic world that called war a last resort requiring conduct that would allow the restoration of peace aristotle argues that the cultivation of a military is necessary and good for the purpose of self defense not for conquering the proper object of practising military training is not in order that men may enslave those who do not deserve slavery but in order that first they may themselves avoid becoming enslaved to others politics book 7 20 stoic philosopher panaetius considered war inhuman but contemplated just war when it was impossible to bring peace and justice by peaceful means just war could be waged solely for retribution or defense in both cases having to be declared officially he also established the importance of treating the defeated in a civilized way especially those who surrendered even after a prolonged conflict 21 in ancient rome a just cause for war might include the necessity of repelling an invasion or retaliation for pillaging or a breach of treaty 22 war was always potentially nefas wrong forbidden and risked religious pollution and divine disfavor 23 a just war bellum iustum thus required a ritualized declaration by the fetial priests 24 more broadly conventions of war and treaty making were part of the ius gentium the law of nations the customary moral obligations regarded as innate and universal to human beings 25 christian views edit christian just war thinking is often thought to begin with saint ambrose bishop of milan before being developed further by his contemporary saint augustine of hippo 26 27 the just war theory with some amendments is still used by christians today as a guide to whether or not a war can be justified and how it should be fought christians may argue sometimes war may be necessary and right even though it may not be good in the case of a country that has been invaded by an occupying force for example war may be the only way to restore justice 28 saint ambrose edit influenced by roman law and cicero in particular ambrose believed that war was legitimate only for defensive purposes or the punishment of serious wrongdoing and rulers were obliged to respect treaties avoid exploiting enemies and treat the defeated with mercy 29 ambrose also seems to have regarded military force as permissible against heretics or in support of christian orthodoxy 30 nevertheless he strictly prohibited the church from direct involvement in violence insisting that clergy must not take up arms themselves 30 similarly warfare had to be undertaken only to fulfill divine law not for personal motives and any war driven by emotional excess vindictiveness or other disordered intentions fell outside the moral limits he envisioned 30 saint augustine edit saint augustine held that christians should not resort immediately to violence but that god has given the sword to governments for a good reason based upon romans 13 4 in contra faustum manichaeum book 22 sections 69 76 the main source for his just war ideas augustine argues that christians as part of a government need not be ashamed of protecting peace and punishing wickedness when they are obliged to do so augustine regarded intention as the main determinant of whether a war was just or sinful what is here required is not a bodily action but an inward disposition the sacred seat of virtue is the heart 31 nonetheless augustine asserted that peaceful inaction in the face of a grave wrong that could be rectified only by violence would be a sin defense of oneself or the innocent could therefore be a necessity especially when authorized by a legitimate state authority they who have waged war in obedience to the divine command or in conformity with his laws have represented in their persons the public justice or the wisdom of government and in this capacity have put to death wicked men such persons have by no means violated the commandment thou shalt not kill 32 but say they the wise man will wage just wars as if he would not all the rather lament the necessity of just wars if he remembers that he is a man for if they were not just he would not wage them and would therefore be delivered from all wars 32 no war is undertaken by a good state except on behalf of good faith or for safety 33 according to j mark mattox in terms of the traditional notion of jus ad bellum the circumstances under which wars can be justly fought war is a coping mechanism for righteous sovereigns who would ensure that their violent international encounters are minimal a reflection of the divine will to the greatest extent possible and always justified in terms of the traditional notion of jus in bello justice in war or the moral considerations which ought to constrain the use of violence in war war is a coping mechanism for righteous combatants who by divine edict have no choice but to subject themselves to their political masters and seek to ensure that they execute their war fighting duty as justly as possible 34 to summarize augustine explored the relationship between christian charity and the use of force in greater philosophical depth than ambrose though he ultimately affirmed many of the same principles 35 augustine did not attempt to craft a systematic doctrine of just war and his comments on it are scattered across his writing even so the foundations of what later became the classical just war tradition can be clearly identified in his thought 30 for augustine as for ambrose war could also be understood as analogous to a judicial process in which the political authority uses war to punish those who commit injustice 30 indeed he compared military action to civil litigation seeking restitution or punitive redress 30 since god was the ultimate judge and there were old testament precedents for his ordering of wars against israel s enemies and unbelievers just war could also become holy war or religious war 36 several core just war principles emerge from augustine s writing legitimate authority only public authorities may wage war private individuals have no right to initiate armed conflict 30 just cause defense of the community protection of allies or redress for wrongful acts are just causes for war though augustine also allowed for offensive action under certain circumstances citing moses expulsion of the amorites after they denied israel peaceful passage 30 right intention proper inner disposition is essential a ruler or soldier must act with a mindset comparable to that of a christian judge or executioner firm yet guided by love and compassion actions motivated by revenge wrath or greed invalidate any claim to justice in war 30 finally the ultimate goal of just war must be to establish peace 37 saint isidore of seville edit isidore of seville writes those wars are unjust which are undertaken without cause for aside from vengeance or to fight off enemies no just war can be waged 38 isidore offers a succinct definition of just war in his etymologiae describing it as a conflict waged by formal declaration either to recover seized property or to drive off an enemy 39 40 41 he immediately contrasts this with unjust war following ideas drawn from cicero s de re publica 30 although isidore s brief essentially roman formulation did not fully engage with augustine s more sophisticated thinking and did not fully incorporate subsequent christian or post roman developments it nevertheless became like the writings of saint gregory of tours an important conduit through which the conception of just war entered the high medieval period informing the decretum of gratian in particular 30 carolingian period edit the just war ideas of saint augustine of hippo and other church fathers were transmitted via saint isidore of seville saint gregory of tours and other scholars into the carolingian period informing the christianizing imperial project of charlemagne and the consequent carolingian renaissance 42 43 44 just holy war ideas about legitimate authority just cause punishment of enemies unbelievers and the establishment of peace therefore gained traction though traditional christian concerns particularly among clerics about the sinfulness of killing in war or being killed in a state of sin were reflected in sermons liturgies and penitential texts 45 46 47 48 this led to increasing deployment of military chaplains to enable soldiers to confess their sins and thereby reconcile themselves with god before battle 45 46 47 48 proto jus in bello rules to protect non combatants such as clergy nuns widows orphans and the poor including their property also began to appear in ecclesiastical texts as well as some capitularies laws or ordinances issued by charlemagne and other rulers anticipating the later peace of god and truce of god movements 30 peace and truce of god edit main article peace and truce of god the medieval peace of god latin pax dei was a 10th century mass movement in western europe instigated by the clergy that granted immunity from violence for non combatants starting in the 11th century the truce of god latin treuga dei involved church rules that successfully limited when and where fighting could occur catholic forces e g of warring barons could not fight each other on sundays thursdays holidays the entirety of lent and advent and other times severely disrupting the conduct of wars citation needed the 1179 third council of the lateran adopted a version of it for the whole church saint thomas aquinas edit further information thomas aquinas just war saint thomas aquinas contributed to the development of the just war theory in medieval europe the just war theory by saint thomas aquinas has had a lasting impact on later generations of thinkers and was part of an emerging consensus in medieval europe on just war 49 in the 13th century aquinas reflected in detail on peace and war aquinas was a dominican friar and contemplated the teachings of the bible on peace and war in combination with ideas from aristotle plato socrates saint augustine and other philosophers whose writings are part of the western canon aquinas views on war drew heavily on the decretum gratiani a book the italian monk gratian had compiled with passages from the bible after its publication in the 12th century the decretum gratiani had been republished with commentary from pope innocent iv and the dominican friar raymond of penafort other significant influences on aquinas just war theory were alexander of hales and henry of segusio 50 in summa theologica aquinas asserted that it is not always a sin to wage war and he set out criteria for a just war according to aquinas three requirements must be met firstly the war must be waged upon the command of a rightful sovereign secondly the war needs to be waged for just cause on account of some wrong the attacked have committed thirdly warriors must have the right intent namely to promote good and to avoid evil 51 52 aquinas came to the conclusion that a just war could be offensive and that injustice should not be tolerated so as to avoid war...
|
