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in some cases a pde can be solved via perturbation analysis in which the solution is considered to be a correction to an equation with a known solution alternatives are numerical analysis techniques from simple finite difference schemes to the more mature multigrid and finite element methods many interesting problems in science and engineering are solved in this way using computers sometimes high performance supercomputers lie group method edit from 1870 sophus lie s work put the theory of differential equations on a more satisfactory foundation he showed that the integration theories of the older mathematicians can by the introduction of what are now called lie groups be referred to a common source and that ordinary differential equations which admit the same infinitesimal transformations present comparable difficulties of integration he also emphasized the subject of transformations of contact a general approach to solving pdes uses the symmetry property of differential equations the continuous infinitesimal transformations of solutions to solutions lie theory continuous group theory lie algebras and differential geometry are used to understand the structure of linear and nonlinear partial differential equations for generating integrable equations to find its lax pairs recursion operators bäcklund transform and finally finding exact analytic solutions to the pde symmetry methods have been recognized to study differential equations arising in mathematics physics engineering and many other disciplines semi analytical methods edit the adomian decomposition method 13 the lyapunov artificial small parameter method and his homotopy perturbation method are all special cases of the more general homotopy analysis method 14 these are series expansion methods and except for the lyapunov method are independent of small physical parameters as compared to the well known perturbation theory thus giving these methods greater flexibility and solution generality numerical solutions edit the three most widely used numerical methods to solve pdes are the finite element method fem finite volume methods fvm and finite difference methods fdm as well other kind of methods called meshfree methods which were made to solve problems where the aforementioned methods are limited the fem has a prominent position among these methods and especially its exceptionally efficient higher order version hp fem other hybrid versions of fem and meshfree methods include the generalized finite element method gfem extended finite element method xfem spectral finite element method sfem meshfree finite element method discontinuous galerkin finite element method dgfem element free galerkin method efgm interpolating element free galerkin method iefgm etc finite element method edit main article finite element method the finite element method fem its practical application often known as finite element analysis fea is a numerical technique for approximating solutions of partial differential equations pde as well as of integral equations using a finite set of functions 15 16 the solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely steady state problems or rendering the pde into an approximating system of ordinary differential equations which are then numerically integrated using standard techniques such as euler s method runge kutta etc finite difference method edit main article finite difference method finite difference methods are numerical methods for approximating the solutions to differential equations using finite difference equations to approximate derivatives finite volume method edit main article finite volume method similar to the finite difference method or finite element method values are calculated at discrete places on a meshed geometry finite volume refers to the small volume surrounding each node point on a mesh in the finite volume method surface integrals in a partial differential equation that contain a divergence term are converted to volume integrals using the divergence theorem these terms are then evaluated as fluxes at the surfaces of each finite volume because the flux entering a given volume is identical to that leaving the adjacent volume these methods conserve mass by design neural networks edit this section is an excerpt from deep learning partial differential equations edit physics informed neural networks have been used to solve partial differential equations in both forward and inverse problems in a data driven manner 17 one example is the reconstructing fluid flow governed by the navier stokes equations using physics informed neural networks does not require the often expensive mesh generation that conventional cfd methods rely on 18 19 it is evident that geometric and physical constraints have a synergistic effect on neural pde surrogates thereby enhancing their efficacy in predicting stable and super long rollouts 20 weak solutions edit main article weak solution weak solutions are functions that satisfy the pde yet in other meanings than regular sense the meaning for this term may differ with context and one of the most commonly used definitions is based on the notion of distributions an example 21 for the definition of a weak solution is as follows consider the boundary value problem given by l u f in u u 0 on u displaystyle begin aligned lu f quad text in u u 0 quad text on partial u end aligned where l u i j j a i j i u i b i i u c u displaystyle lu sum _ i j partial _ j a ij partial _ i u sum _ i b i partial _ i u cu denotes a second order partial differential operator in divergence form we say a u h 0 1 u displaystyle u in h_ 0 1 u is a weak solution if u i j a i j i u j v i b i i u v c u v d x u f v d x displaystyle int _ u bigg sum _ i j a ij partial _ i u partial _ j v sum _ i b i partial _ i u v cuv bigg dx int _ u fvdx for every v h 0 1 u displaystyle v in h_ 0 1 u which can be derived by a formal integral by parts an example for a weak solution is as follows ϕ x 1 4 π 1 x displaystyle phi x frac 1 4 pi frac 1 x is a weak solution satisfying 2 ϕ δ in r 3 displaystyle nabla 2 phi delta text in r 3 in distributional sense as formally r 3 2 ϕ x ψ x d x r 3 ϕ x 2 ψ x d x ψ 0 for ψ c c r 3 displaystyle int _ r 3 nabla 2 phi x psi x dx int _ r 3 phi x nabla 2 psi x dx psi 0 text for psi in c_ c infty r 3 theoretical studies edit in pure mathematics the theoretical studies of pdes focus on the criteria for a solution to exist and the properties of a solution while finding its formula is often secondary well posedness edit main article well posed problem well posedness refers to a common schematic package of information about a pde to say that a pde is well posed one must have an existence and uniqueness theorem asserting that by the prescription of some freely chosen functions one can single out one specific solution of the pde by continuously changing the free choices one continuously changes the corresponding solution this is by the necessity of being applicable to several different pde somewhat vague the requirement of continuity in particular is ambiguous since there are usually many inequivalent means by which it can be rigorously defined it is however somewhat unusual to study a pde without specifying a way in which it is well posed regularity edit main article regularity theory regularity refers to the integrability and differentiability of weak solutions which can often be represented by sobolev spaces this problem arise due to the difficulty in searching for classical solutions researchers often tend to find weak solutions at first and then find out whether it is smooth enough to be qualified as a classical solution results from functional analysis are often used in this field of study see also edit some common pdes acoustic wave equation burgers equation continuity equation heat equation helmholtz equation klein gordon equation jacobi equation lagrange equation lorenz equation laplace s equation maxwell s equations navier stokes equation poisson s equation reaction diffusion system schrödinger equation wave equation types of boundary conditions dirichlet boundary condition neumann boundary condition robin boundary condition cauchy problem various topics jet bundle laplace transform applied to differential equations list of dynamical systems and differential equations topics matrix differential equation numerical partial differential equations partial differential algebraic equation recurrence relation stochastic processes and boundary value problems notes edit regularity and singularities in elliptic pde s beyond monotonicity formulas ellipticpde project fact sheet h2020 cordis european commission retrieved 2024 02 05 klainerman sergiu 2010 pde as a unified subject in alon n bourgain j connes a gromov m milman v eds visions in mathematics modern birkhäuser classics basel birkhäuser pp 279 315 doi 10 1007 978 3 0346 0422 2_10 isbn 978 3 0346 0421 5 erdoğan m burak tzirakis nikolaos 2016 dispersive partial differential equations wellposedness and applications london mathematical society student texts cambridge cambridge university press isbn 978 1 107 14904 5 evans 1998 pp 1 2 evans 1998 appendix a klainerman sergiu 2008 partial differential equations in gowers timothy barrow green june leader imre eds the princeton companion to mathematics princeton university press pp 455 483 1 2 3 levandosky julie classification of second order equations pdf courant and hilbert 1962 p 182 gershenfeld neil 2000 the nature of mathematical modeling reprinted with corr ed cambridge cambridge university press p 27 isbn 0521570956 zachmanoglou thoe 1986 pp 115 116 wilmott paul howison sam dewynne jeff 1995 the mathematics of financial derivatives cambridge university press pp 76 81 isbn 0 521 49789 2 logan j david 1994 first order equations and characteristics an introduction to nonlinear partial differential equations new york john wiley sons pp 51 79 isbn 0 471 59916 6 adomian g 1994 solving frontier problems of physics the decomposition method kluwer academic publishers isbn 9789401582896 liao s j 2003 beyond perturbation introduction to the homotopy analysis method boca raton chapman hall crc press isbn 1 58488 407 x solin p 2005 partial differential equations and the finite element method hoboken new jersey j wiley sons isbn 0 471 72070 4 solin p segeth k dolezel i 2003 higher order finite element methods boca raton chapman hall crc press isbn 1 58488 438 x raissi m perdikaris p karniadakis g e february 2019 physics informed neural networks a deep learning framework for solving forward and inverse problems involving nonlinear partial differential equations journal of computational physics 378 686 707 bibcode 2019jcoph 378 686r doi 10 1016 j jcp 2018 10 045 osti 1595805 mao zhiping jagtap ameya d karniadakis george em march 2020 physics informed neural networks for high speed flows computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering 360 112789 bibcode 2020cmame 36012789m doi 10 1016 j cma 2019 112789 raissi maziar yazdani alireza karniadakis george em 28 february 2020 hidden fluid mechanics learning velocity and pressure fields from flow visualizations science 367 6481 1026 1030 bibcode 2020sci 367 1026r doi 10 1126 science aaw4741 pmc 7219083 pmid 32001523 huang yunfei greenberg david s 2025 geometric and physical constraints synergistically enhance neural pde surrogates arxiv 2506 05513 cs lg evans 1998 chpt 6 second order elliptic equations references edit courant r hilbert d 1962 methods of mathematical physics vol ii new york wiley interscience isbn 9783527617241 citation isbn date incompatibility help drábek pavel holubová gabriela 2007 elements of partial differential equations online ed berlin de gruyter isbn 9783110191240 evans lawrence c 1998 partial differential equations pdf providence r i american mathematical society isbn 0 8218 0772 2 ibragimov nail h 1993 crc handbook of lie group analysis of differential equations vol 1 3 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