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effective means including custom with the effect that its marine and or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings an apparently unique extension of the meaning is used by noaa to refer to protected areas on the great lakes of north america 2 history edit the form of marine protected areas trace the origins to the world congress on national parks in 1962 in 1976 a process was delivered to the excessive rights to every sovereign state to establish marine protected areas at over 200 nautical miles over the next two decades a scientific body of evidence marked the utility in the designation of marine protected areas in the aftermath of the 1992 earth summit in rio de janeiro an international target was established with the encompassment of ten percent of the world s marine protected areas on 28 october 2016 in hobart australia the convention for the conservation of antarctic marine living resources agreed to establish the first antarctic and largest marine protected area in the world encompassing 1 55 million km 2 600 000 sq mi in the ross sea 18 other large mpas are in the indian pacific and atlantic oceans in certain exclusive economic zones of australia and overseas territories of france the united kingdom and the united states with major 990 000 square kilometres 380 000 sq mi or larger new or expanded mpas by these nations since 2012 such as natural park of the coral sea pacific islands heritage marine national monument coral sea commonwealth marine reserve and south georgia and the south sandwich islands marine protected area when counted with mpas of all sizes from many other countries as of april 2023 there are more than 16 615 mpas encompassing 7 2 of the world s oceans 26 146 645 km 2 with less than half of that area encompassing 2 9 of the world s oceans assessed to be fully or highly protected according to the mpa guide framework 19 classifications edit the chagos archipelago was declared the world s largest marine reserve in april 2010 with an area of 250 000 square miles until march 2015 when it was declared illegal by the permanent court of arbitration 20 several types of compliant mpa can be distinguished a totally marine area with no significant terrestrial parts an area containing both marine and terrestrial components which can vary between two extremes those that are predominantly maritime with little land for example an atoll would have a tiny island with a significant maritime population surrounding it or that is mostly terrestrial marine ecosystems that contain land and intertidal components only for example a mangrove forest would contain no open sea or ocean marine environment but its river like marine ecosystem nevertheless complies with the definition iucn offered seven categories of protected area based on management objectives and four broad governance types cat iucn protected area management categories ia strict nature reserve a marine reserve usually connotes maximum protection where all resource removals are strictly prohibited in countries such as kenya and belize marine reserves allow for low risk removals to sustain local communities ib wilderness area ii national park marine parks emphasize the protection of ecosystems but allow light human use a marine park may prohibit fishing or extraction of resources but allow recreation some marine parks such as those in tanzania are zoned and allow activities such as fishing only in low risk areas iii natural monuments or features established to protect historical sites such as shipwrecks and cultural sites such as aboriginal fishing grounds iv habitat species management area established to protect a certain species to benefit fisheries rare habitat as spawning nursing grounds for fish or to protect entire ecosystems v protected seascape limited active management as with protected landscapes vi sustainable use of natural resources related protected area categories include the following world heritage site whs an area exhibiting extensive natural or cultural history maritime areas are poorly represented however with only 46 out of over 800 sites man and the biosphere unesco program that promotes a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere under article 4 biosphere reserves must encompass a mosaic of ecological systems and thus combine terrestrial coastal or marine ecosystems in structure they are similar to multiple use mpas with a core area ringed by different degrees of protection 21 ramsar site must meet certain criteria for the definition of wetland to become part of a global system these sites do not necessarily receive protection but are indexed by importance for later recommendation to an agency that could designate it a protected area 22 while area refers to a single contiguous location terms such as network system and region that group mpas are not always consistently employed system is more often used to refer to an individual mpa whereas region is defined by the world conservation monitoring centre as 23 a collection of individual mpas operating cooperatively at various spatial scales and with a range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve at the 2004 convention on biological diversity the agency agreed to use network on a global level while adopting system for national and regional levels the network is a mechanism to establish regional and local systems but carries no authority or mandate leaving all activity within the system 24 hawaiian waves crashing against rocks on shore no take zones ntzs are areas designated in a number of the world s mpas where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities these no take zones can cover an entire mpa or specific portions for example the 1 150 000 square kilometres 440 000 sq mi papahānaumokuākea marine national monument the world s largest mpa and largest protected area of any type land or sea is a 100 no take zone 25 related terms include specially protected area spa special area of conservation sac the united kingdom s marine conservation zones mczs 26 or area of special conservation asc etc which each provide specific restrictions stressors edit stressors that affect oceans include the impact of extractive industries marine pollution and changes to the ocean s chemistry ocean acidification resulting from elevated carbon dioxide levels due to our greenhouse gas emissions see also effects of climate change on oceans 27 mpas have been cited as the ocean s single greatest hope for increasing the resilience of the marine environment to such stressors 27 well designed and managed mpas developed with input and support from interested stakeholders can conserve biodiversity and protect and restore fisheries economics edit mpas can help sustain local economies by supporting fisheries and tourism for example apo island in the philippines made protected one quarter of their reef allowing fish to recover jump starting their economy this was shown in the film resources at risk philippine coral reef 28 a 2016 report by the center for development and strategy found that programs like the united states national marine sanctuary system can develop considerable economic benefits for communities through public private partnerships 29 they can be self financed through a surrounding conservation finance area in which a limited number licenses are granted to benefit from the spillover of the marine protected area 30 management edit typical mpas restrict fishing oil and gas mining and or tourism other restrictions may limit the use of ultrasonic devices like sonar which may confuse the guidance system of cetaceans development construction and the like some fishing restrictions include no take zones which means that no fishing is allowed less than 1 of us mpas are no take ship transit can also be restricted or banned either as a preventive measure or to avoid direct disturbance to individual species the degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether mpas are located in territorial waters exclusive economic zones or the high seas the law of the sea regulates these limits most mpas have been located in territorial waters where the appropriate government can enforce them however mpas have been established in exclusive economic zones and in international waters for example italy france and monaco in 1999 jointly established a cetacean sanctuary in the ligurian sea named the pelagos sanctuary for mediterranean marine mammals this sanctuary includes both national and international waters both the cbd and iucn recommended a variety of management systems for use in a protected area system they advocated that mpas be seen as one of many nodes in a network of protected areas 31 the following are the most common management systems asinara italy is listed by wdpa as both a marine reserve and a national marine park and as such could be labelled multiple use 32 seasonal and temporary management activities most critically fishing are restricted seasonally or temporarily e g to protect spawning nursing grounds or to let a rapidly reducing species recover multiple use mpas these are the most common and arguably the most effective these areas employ two or more protections the most important sections get the highest protection such as a no take zone and are surrounded with areas of lesser protections multiple use mpas can make use of very diverse fisheries regulations to balance fisheries extraction with nature protection 33 community involvement and related approaches community managed mpas empower local communities to operate partially or completely independent of the governmental jurisdictions they occupy empowering communities to manage resources can lower conflict levels and enlist the support of diverse groups that rely on the resource such as subsistence and commercial fishers scientists recreation tourism businesses youths and others mistrust between fishermen and regulating authorities is of central importance there and needs to be addressed recent evidence from regions like scandinavia spain portugal or canada reveals success stories based on the tested cooperation between marine scientists and fishermen in jointly managing coastal marine reserves 34 marine protected area networks edit main article marine protected area network marine protected area networks or mpa networks have been defined as a group of mpas that interact with one another ecologically and or socially form a network 28 these networks are intended to connect individuals and mpas and promote education and cooperation among various administrations and user groups mpa networks are from the perspective of resource users intended to address both environmental and socio economic needs complementary ecological and social goals and designs need greater research and policy support 28 filipino communities connect with one another to share information about mpas creating a larger network through the social communities support 35 emerging or established mpa networks can be found in australia belize the red sea gulf of aden and mexico 28 future approaches edit to be truly representative of the ocean and its range of marine resources marine conservation parks should encompass the great variety of ocean geological and geographical terrains as these in turn influence the biosphere around them citation needed as time progresses it would be strategically advantageous to develop parks that include oceanic features such as ocean ridges ocean trenches island arc systems ocean seamounts ocean plateaus and abyssal plains which occupy half the earth s surface another factor that will influence the development of marine conservation areas is ownership who owns the world s oceans 36 approximately 64 of the world s oceans are international waters and subject to regulations such as the law of the sea and the governance of un bodies such as the international seabed authority citation needed the remaining 36 of the ocean is under the governance of individual countries within their exclusive economic zones eezs citation needed some individual national eez s cover very large areas such as france and usa 11 million km 2 and australia russia uk and indonesia 6 million km 2 some states have very small land areas but extremely large eez s such as kiribati the federated states of micronesia marshall islands and cook islands who have individual eez areas of between 1 9 and 3 5 million km 2 the national eez s are the ones where governance is easier and agreements to create marine parks are within national jurisdictions such as is the case with marae moana and the cook islands citation needed one alternative to imposing mpas on an indigenous population is through the use of indigenous protected areas such as those in australia international efforts edit map showing the share of marine territorial waters protected by country 2021 the 17th international union for conservation of nature iucn general assembly in san jose california the 19th iucn assembly and the fourth world parks congress all proposed to centralise the establishment of protected areas the world summit on sustainable development in 2002 called for the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information including representative networks by 2012 37 the evian agreement signed by g8 nations in 2003 agreed to these terms the durban action plan developed in 2003 called for regional action and targets to establish a network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional environmental protocols it recommended establishing protected areas for 20 to 30 of the world s oceans by the goal date of 2012 the convention on biological diversity considered these recommendations and recommended requiring countries to set up marine parks controlled by a central organization before merging them the united nations framework convention on climate change agreed to the terms laid out by the convention and in 2004 its member nations committed to the following targets 38 by 2006 complete an area system gap analysis at national and regional levels by 2008 address the less represented marine ecosystems accounting for those beyond national jurisdiction in accordance by 2009 designate the protected areas identified through the gap analysis by 2012 complete the establishment of a comprehensive and ecologically representative network bunaken national park indonesia is officially listed as both a marine reserve and a national marine park 39 the establishment by 2010 of terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive effectively managed and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively inter alia through a global network contribute to achieving the three objectives of the convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the 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