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cheduled with testing recommencing in september 1957 the first test was based on a new simpler design a two stage thermonuclear bomb that had a much more powerful trigger this test grapple x round c was exploded on 8 november and yielded approximately 1 8 mt 7 5 pj on 28 april 1958 a bomb was dropped that yielded 3 mt 13 pj britain s most powerful test two final air burst tests on 2 and 11 september 1958 dropped smaller bombs that yielded around 1 mt 4 2 pj each 50 american observers had been invited to these kinds of tests after britain s successful detonation of a megaton range device and thus demonstrating a practical understanding of the teller ulam design secret the united states agreed to exchange some of its nuclear designs with the united kingdom leading to the 1958 us uk mutual defence agreement instead of continuing with its own design the british were given access to the design of the smaller american mk 28 warhead and were able to manufacture copies 50 china edit main article project 639 china detonated a full scale multi stage thermonuclear bomb codenamed 639 on 17 june 1967 with a yield of 3 31 mt 13 8 pj becoming the world s fourth thermonuclear power at only 32 months after detonating its first fission weapon this remains the fastest success of a national hydrogen bomb program following a nation s first nuclear test china had previously tested a layer cake design 596l boosted fission weapon in may 1966 yielding 220 kt 920 tj and a small scale multi stage thermonuclear bomb 629 in december 1966 testing took place in the lop nor test site in northwest china 51 52 the soviet union assisted the chinese nuclear program from 1957 but this was abruptly ended by the sino soviet split in 1959 for thermonuclear weapons china had received a lithium deuteride production plant and limited knowledge of the soviet layer cake design unlike the us and ussr at the time of their hydrogen bomb program china operated no production facilities for plutonium or tritium plutonium production reactor in jiuquan became operational only in 1967 and plutonium separation began in september 1968 53 during 1963 chinese scientists led by peng huanwu extensively investigated this design but knew it was too inefficient to be the hydrogen bomb possessed by other countries nonetheless plans were made to test a small layer cake designs in 1966 and 658 a three staged layer cake design capable of reaching one megaton similar to the british backup design orange herald large in october 1967 54 in september and october 1965 a theoretical research crash project ran in shanghai led by yu min using digital computers and manual calculation yu held a lecture series on the layer cake bomb and in doing so realized its flaw was its slow production of tritium from lithium deuteride i e the jetter cycle this resulted in a teller ulam analogue design for compression of a thermonuclear secondary by a fission primary in december 1965 this design was selected as the focus of thermonuclear development yu later stated this rapid development prevented the hydrogen bomb research program from crumbling during the ten year cultural revolution beginning in may 1966 such as occurred to china s first crewed space program 54 the 1966 small layer cake test was still carried out in may 1966 as 596l for project 596 first atomic bomb but with the addition of lithium deuteride the true two stage thermonuclear design first tested at a small scale as the 629 device in december 1966 yielding 120 kt 500 tj following this success it was decided to cannibalize the materials from the backup 658 layer cake project in the fervor of the cultural revolution the ninth academy eagerly competed against peng huanwu s prediction that france would test its first hydrogen bomb in 1967 and moved the speculative 639 test date from october to july 54 the two stage design was then tested at full scale as the 639 device aka test no 6 in june 1967 yielding 3 31 mt 13 8 pj 54 in china the two stage design has become known as the yu min configuration zh 于敏构型 yú mǐn gòu xíng the chinese government claims that although it is a multi stage thermonuclear weapon design it is distinct from the teller ulam design assumed to be used by the other four thermonuclear nations allowing further miniaturization and that together these two comprise the only feasible thermonuclear weapon designs 55 the differences are unclear as the chinese design also channels energy from a nuclear fission primary to compress a thermonuclear secondary like the initial soviet and british hydrogen bombs the secondary is spherical unlike the first cylindrical secondaries used in the us 54 a story in the new york times by william broad 56 reported that in 1995 a supposed chinese double agent delivered information indicating that china knew secret details of the us w88 warhead supposedly through espionage 57 this line of investigation eventually resulted in the abortive trial of wen ho lee france edit see also canopus nuclear test french physicist michel carayol fr proposed the french analogue to the teller ulam design following their first nuclear test in 1960 france prioritized fission weapon development and deliverability by mirage iv bombers in 1966 de gaulle felt pressure that china would become the fourth thermonuclear country and set a deadline of 1968 for the first hydrogen bomb test a participating scientist pierre billaud wrote of french thermonuclear knowledge in 1965 compared to our american colleagues in 1948 french scientists had many advantages we knew that hydrogen bombs existed and worked and that they used li6d lithium deuteride and we understood the reactions at work we also had powerful computers of us origin which were not available in the late 1940s and we knew more or less the dimensions and weights of the nuclear weapons deployed at nato bases in europe and their yields this information was obtained from tips we had managed to get as well as from articles in the open literature from such publications as aviation week or the bulletin of the atomic scientists early tests closely fitted li6d lithium deuteride to the fissile core implying a layer cake design france began testing thermonuclear principles in the 1966 70 french nuclear tests beginning with the 125 kt rigel boosted fission shot in september 1966 in april 1967 physicist michel carayol fr outlined the radiation implosion idea central to the teller ulam design but the weapons scientists were not immediately convinced it was the solution in june france lost the hydrogen bomb race to china s three megaton project 639 test by mid 1967 like their chinese counterparts french scientists had identified an extremely high almost twenty fold density increase of the lithium deuteride fuel to be crucial to megaton success but planned a test of carayol s correct teller ulam analogue as only one of three designs for summer of 1968 france s hydrogen bomb development path was crucially influenced by the british scientist william richard joseph cook who led the successful british hydrogen bomb programme a decade prior unlike france the uk as well as the us and ussr had aerial reconnaissance capabilities to collect nuclear fallout from testing and make deductions including france s lack of progress in thermonuclear weapons in september 1967 cook provided limited thermonuclear development information to the military attache at the french embassy in london specifically that their current designs would not succeed and that the solution was more simple this allowed the french scientists to identify and proceed with only carayol s proposal for the ultimately successful 1968 thermonuclear tests it is believed this was done on the instruction of prime minister harold wilson aimed as an overture to de gaulle who was currently blocking the accession of the united kingdom to the european communities due to its closer relationship to the united states however de gaulle again vetoed uk accession in november 1967 and was very shocked when made aware of the british contribution 58 the first dt boosted warhead the mr 41 was tested in the castor and pollux shots of july and august 1968 successfully yielding 450 kt 1 900 tj in the former 59 the canopus test in the fangataufa atoll in french polynesia on 24 august 1968 was the country s first multistage thermonuclear weapon test the bomb was detonated from a balloon at a height of 520 metres 1 710 ft the result of this test was significant atmospheric contamination 60 france is currently believed to have nuclear weapons equal in sophistication to the other major nuclear powers 50 france and china did not sign or ratify the partial nuclear test ban treaty of 1963 which banned nuclear test explosions in the atmosphere underwater or in outer space between 1966 and 1996 france carried out more than 190 nuclear tests 60 france s final nuclear test took place on 27 january 1996 and then the country dismantled its polynesian test sites france signed the comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty that same year and then ratified the treaty within two years one of france s triomphant class nuclear armed submarines le téméraire s617 in 2015 france confirmed that its nuclear arsenal contains about 300 warheads carried by submarine launched ballistic missiles and fighter bombers france has four triomphant class ballistic missile submarines one ballistic missile submarine is deployed in the deep ocean but a total of three must be in operational use at all times the three older submarines are armed with 16 m45 missiles the newest submarine le terrible was commissioned in 2010 and it has m51 missiles capable of carrying tn 75 thermonuclear warheads the air fleet is four squadrons at four different bases in total there are 23 mirage 2000n aircraft and 20 rafales capable of carrying nuclear warheads 61 the m51 1 missiles are intended to be replaced with the new m51 2 warhead beginning in 2016 which has a 3 000 kilometre 1 900 mi greater range than the m51 1 61 france has about 60 air launched missiles tipped with tn 80 tn 81 warheads with a yield of about 300 kt 1 300 tj each france s nuclear program has been carefully designed to ensure that these weapons remain usable decades into the future 50 unreliable source currently france is no longer deliberately producing critical mass materials such as plutonium and enriched uranium but it still relies on nuclear energy for electricity with 239 pu as a byproduct 62 india edit see also india and weapons of mass destruction shakti 1 on 11 may 1998 india announced that it had detonated a thermonuclear bomb in its operation shakti tests shakti i specifically in hindi the word shakti means power 63 64 samar mubarakmand a pakistani nuclear physicist asserted that if shakti i had been a thermonuclear test the device had failed to fire 65 however harold m agnew former director of the los alamos national laboratory said that india s assertion of having detonated a staged thermonuclear bomb was believable 66 india says that their thermonuclear device was tested at a controlled yield of 45 kt 190 tj because of the close proximity of the khetolai village at about 5 kilometres 3 mi to ensure that the houses in that village do not suffer significant damage 67 another cited reason was that radioactivity released from yields significantly more than 45 kt might not have been contained fully 67 after the pokhran ii tests rajagopala chidambaram former chairman of the atomic energy commission of india said that india has the capability to build thermonuclear bombs of any yield at will 66 india officially maintains that it can build thermonuclear weapons of various yields up to around 200 kt 840 tj on the basis of the shakti 1 thermonuclear test 67 68 the yield of india s hydrogen bomb test remains highly debatable among the indian science community and the international scholars 69 the question of politicisation and disputes between indian scientists further complicated the matter 70 in an interview in august 2009 the director for the 1998 test site preparations k santhanam claimed that the yield of the thermonuclear explosion was lower than expected and that india should therefore not rush into signing the comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty other indian scientists involved in the test have disputed santhanam s claim 71 arguing that his claims are unscientific 64 british seismologist roger clarke argued that the magnitudes suggested a combined yield of up to 60 kilotonnes of tnt 250 tj consistent with the indian announced total yield of 56 kilotonnes of tnt 230 tj 72 us seismologist jack evernden has argued that for correct estimation of yields one should account properly for geological and seismological differences between test sites 67 israel edit main article nuclear weapons of israel israel is alleged to possess thermonuclear weapons of the teller ulam design 73 but it is not known to have tested any nuclear devices although it is widely speculated that the vela incident of 1979 may have been a joint israeli south african nuclear test 74 75 271 76 297 300 it is well established that edward teller advised and guided the israeli establishment on general nuclear matters for some 20 years 77 289 293 between 1964 and 1967 teller made six visits to israel where he lectured at the tel aviv university on general topics in theoretical physics 78 it took him a year to convince the cia about israel s capability and finally in 1976 carl duckett of the cia testified to the us congress after receiving credible information from an american scientist teller on israel s nuclear capability 76 297 300 during the 1990s teller eventually confirmed speculations in the media that it was during his visits in the 1960s that he concluded that israel was in possession of nuclear weapons 76 297 300 after he conveyed the matter to the higher level of the us government teller reportedly said they israel have it and they were clever enough to trust their research and not to test they know that to test would get them into trouble 76 297 300 north korea edit main article north korea and weapons of mass destruction north korea claimed to have tested its miniaturised thermonuclear bomb on 6 january 2016 north korea s first three nuclear tests 2006 2009 and 2013 were relatively low yield and do not appear to have been of a thermonuclear weapon design in 2013 the south korean defense ministry speculated that north korea may be trying to develop a hydrogen bomb and such a device may be north korea s next weapons test 79 80 in january 2016 north korea claimed to have successfully tested a hydrogen bomb 81 although only a magnitude 5 1 seismic event was detected at the time of the test 82 a similar magnitude to the 2013 test of a 6 9 kt 25 38 tj atomic bomb these seismic recordings cast doubt upon north korea s claim that a hydrogen bomb was tested and suggest it was a non fusion nuclear test 83 on 3 september 2017 the country s state media reported that a hydroge...
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