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details of the dispute as recorded in the chronicles are clearly legendary they include the king of france demanding tribute from león and el cid declaring war on emperor pope and french king 257 in the 16th century the jesuit historian juan de mariana gave a fuller and more plausible account of the supposed 11th century dispute at the council of florence it in 1055 according to mariana the emperor henry iii urged pope victor ii to prohibit under severe penalties the use of the imperial title by ferdinand 258 this story is generally regarded as apocryphal although some modern authors have seen a kernel of historical truth in it antonio ballesteros beretta es argued that ferdinand adopted the title in opposition to henry iii s imperial pretensions edmund ernst stengel de believed the version found in mariana on the grounds that the latter probably used the now lost acts of the council of florence 259 ernst steindorff accepted it as an authentic transmission of the romancero tradition 260 the 13th century estoria de españa claims that the imperial title of alfonso vii was confirmed by the pope which is not backed up by contemporary documents which only call him rex 261 the annales cameracenses 1159 refer to our emperor hre the emperor of constantinople byzantium and the emperor of galicia castile león in contrast to the kings of gaul france and england 262 in 1256 alfonso x of castile would list the spanish emperors as his third imperial lineage alongside his roman hre and constantinopolitan ancestry in his bid for the 1257 imperial election 263 iconography edit further information reichsadler and quaternion eagle double headed eagle iconography across empires serbian eagle based on angelino dulcert s map 1339 during the reign of stefan dušan banner of the empire of trebizond 1380s late byzantine coat of arms house of palaiologos 1400s banner of the holy roman empire house of habsburg 1400 1806 coat of arms of ivan the terrible house of rurik 1577 coat of arms of the russian empire house of romanov 1882 coat of arms of the austrian empire house of habsburg 1815 the double headed eagle as used by the great seljuk empire and the seljuk sultanate of rome used variously by the ottoman empire ayyubid dynasty and mamluk sultanate timeline of rival empires edit byzantine latin empires holy roman empire russia ottoman empire bulgarian empires serbian empires see also edit legacy of the roman empire for a general overview of the roman empire s legacy succession of the roman empire for claims to being the successor of the roman empire succession to the byzantine empire for claims to being the successor of the byzantine empire greek east and latin west for the division of the mediterranean into distinct western and eastern linguistic and cultural spheres dating to the time of the roman empire east west schism for the division between roman and constantinopolitan patriarchal sees of the church emperor at home king abroad similar problem of the existence of multiple emperors claiming universal hegemony within sinosphere caesaropapism historiographical term for the extensive powers of the byzantine emperor in ecclesiastical affairs investiture controversy struggle between the holy roman empire and papacy for power over ecclesiastical appointments donation of constantine for the papacy s claim to roman imperial powers over secular affairs and to primacy over the byzantine see precedence among european monarchies order of precedence during usual papal ceremonies european balance of power a key factor in the foreign politics of the european great powers between the thirty years war and world war i king in prussia a title used by the prussian kings to avoid competition with the king of the romans holy roman emperor battle of constantinople 1147 consortium imperii sharing of roman imperial authority by two or more emperors footnotes edit the term was introduced in the first major treatise on the issue by w ohnsorge cf ohnsorge 1947 regi grecorum qui etiampropternimium fastum divitiarum suarum imperatorem the king of the greeks who even out of the extreme pride of his wealth calls himself emperor arnold of lübeck arnoldi chronica slavorum latin 25f german 23 ahmed i r 1603 1607 referred to himself as sahib kıran i memalik i rûm ve acem ve arab the lord of the fortunate conjunction of the roman persian and arab kingdoms 240 mehmed iv r 1648 1687 used the style ferman ferma yi memalik i rûm ve arab ve acem the one who issues orders to the roman arab and persian kingdoms 240 references edit citations edit kołodziejczyk 2012 p 189 1 2 3 nicol 1967 p 319 browning 1992 p 57 browning 1992 p 58 1 2 browning 1992 p 60 frassetto 2003 p 212 1 2 nelsen guth 2003 p 4 1 2 nelsen guth 2003 p 5 van tricht 2011 p 73 van tricht 2011 p 74 lamers 2015 p 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 muldoon 1999 p 47 1 2 nelson 2019 p 384 muldoon 1999 p 46 1 2 3 4 velde 2002 nicol 1967 p 320 browning 1992 p 61 garland 1999 p 89 1 2 3 4 5 6 west 2016 muldoon 1999 p 48 1 2 muldoon 1999 p 49 1 2 3 muldoon 1999 p 50 1 2 jenkins 1987 p 285 1 2 gibbs johnson 2002 p 62 nicol 1967 p 321 1 2 3 halsall 1996 nicol 1967 p 318 1 2 muldoon 1999 p 51 hoffmann 2009 p 118 brand 1968 p 15 brand 1968 p 176 1 2 3 brand 1968 p 177 1 2 brand 1968 p 178 brand 1968 p 179 brand 1968 p 180 brand 1968 p 181 loud 2010 p 79 brand 1968 p 182 brand 1968 p 184 brand 1968 p 185 brand 1968 p 187 brand 1968 p 188 1 2 3 van tricht 2011 p 64 brand 1968 p 189 brand 1968 p 190 brand 1968 p 191 brand 1968 p 192 brand 1968 p 193 brand 1968 p 194 van tricht 2011 p 61 van tricht 2011 p 62 setton 1976 p 14 1 2 vasilev 1936 p 3 1 2 van tricht 2011 p 63 van tricht 2011 p 75 van tricht 2011 p 76 1 2 van tricht 2011 p 77 1 2 3 4 burkhardt 2014 p 213 angelov 2019 pp 88 89 1 2 korobeinikov 2014 p 43 lock 2006 p 171 john of brienne s crusade in apulia 1229 burkhardt 2017 pp 304 309 angelov 2019 p 89 angelov 2019 pp 89 90 1 2 angelov 2019 p 271 jovanović 2022 pp 1229f 1 2 grégoire 1941 geanakoplos 1959 pp 140f geanakoplos 1959 pp 189f schneidmüller 2010 p 283 schneidmüller 2010 pp 283f frenken 2019 schneidmüller 2010 pp 275f geanakoplos 1959 pp 258 264 nicol 1967 p 338 geanakoplos 1959 pp 264 275 geanakoplos 1959 pp 286 290 geanakoplos 1959 p 341 fine 1994 p 194 nicol 1967 p 332 talbot 1991 p 1652 nicol 1967 p 316 nicol 1967 p 333 fodale 1988 burkhardt 2017 p 297 fine 1994 pp 372f 402 setton hazard 1975 p 150 geanakoplos 1975 p 47 1 2 foster 2015 p 67 1 2 witzmann 2023 1 2 nicol 1967 p 325 1 2 3 4 nicol 1967 p 326 f r 2010 p 159 1 2 dimitrov 2010 p 51 cholakov 2024 p 40 geier 2001 pp 60f madgearu 2016 p 129 sweeney 1973 p 321 sweeney 1973 p 322 sweeney 1973 pp 323f 1 2 3 4 f r 2010 p 160 madgearu 2016 p 135 madgearu 2016 p 128 madgearu 2016 p 136 dimitrov 2010 p 52 madgearu 2016 p 133 geier 2001 p 63 1 2 geier 2001 p 65 fine 1994 pp 125f setton 1976 p 55 angelov 2019 p 72 1 2 geier 2001 p 64 angelov 2019 pp 74f angelov 2019 p 75 nicol 1996 p 76 schmitt 2021 p 102 djokić 2023 p 118 schmitt 2021 pp 102f schmitt 2021 p 105 1 2 3 detrez 2014 p 519 schmitt 2021 p 237 schmitt 2021 p 118 rayfield 2013 p 69 rayfield 2013 p 71 grdzelidze 2012 p 61 rapp 1997 p 163 rapp 1997 p 577 1 2 lomouri 2000 p 184 gamkrelidze et al 2020 p 3 asatiani janelidze 2009 p 87 rapp 1997 p 574 asatiani janelidze 2009 p 102 rapp 1997 p 666 asatiani janelidze 2009 pp 94f eastmond 2004 p 20 eastmond 2004 pp 20 163 bronevskiy 2004 p 295 martin 1830 1 2 burkhardt 2014 p 211 burkhardt 2014 p 225 burkhardt 2014 p 212 eastmond 2004 p 25 giarenis 2019 politics and rhetoric under john iii vatatzes 1 2 korobeinikov 2014 p 44 1 2 angelov 2019 p 206 1 2 fine 1994 p 120 burkhardt 2014 p 42 fine 1994 pp 121 fine 1994 p 123 fine 1994 pp 124f fine 1994 p 125 fine 1994 p 126 fine 1994 p 127 van dieten 1976 1 2 angeliki 2002 eastmond 2004 p 2 vasilev 1936 p 23 vasilev 1936 p 33 vasilev 1936 p 24 citing miller 1926 p 17 eastmond 2004 pp 24f wilson 2016 p 148 1 2 3 4 5 süß 2019 frazee 1983 p 1 frazee 1983 p 23 debertol 2021 pp 356f debertol 2021 p 356 debertol 2021 p 357 debertol 2021 p 358 debertol 2021 pp 359f whaley 2012 pp 17 20 1 2 nicol 1967 p 334 1 2 3 4 kołodziejczyk 2012 p 188 fazakas fegyveresi veress 2021 p 67 floiger strohmeyer 2013 p 100 ziegler 1997 p 261 ziegler 1997 p 262 ziegler 1997 p 263 wilson 2016 p 153 1 2 3 4 wilson 2016 pp 152 155 1 2 anderson 1993 p 20 von reiche 2001 p 56 von reiche 2001 p 100 von reiche 2001 pp 81f von reiche 2001 p 65 von reiche 2001 pp 67 69 von reiche 2001 pp 106f poe 1997 p 6 poe 1997 pp 4 7 de madariaga 2006 p 16 von reiche 2001 pp 40f 67 augustynowicz 2013 p 897 augustynowicz 2013 p 899 von reiche 2001 p 58 de madariaga 2006 pp 338f von reiche 2001 p 125 von reiche 2001 p 114 1 2 3 von reiche 2001 p 122 von reiche 2001 p 69 von reiche 2001 p 90 von reiche 2001 p 98 von reiche 2001 p 99 von reiche 2001 p 103 napier browne 1842 p 579 steppan 2016 p 88 martens 1874 pp 32 44 lodge 1930 p 599 petrova 2022 pp 43 59 petrova 2021 pp 89 109 hoffmann 1988 p 180 1 2 beales 1987 p 432 1 2 sinelschikova 2018 beales 1987 p 285 von reiche 2001 p 28 asche 2023 p 204 eloeva 2006 p 164 both byzantine emperors and tatar khans were called tsars in russia vásáry 2014 p 264 von reiche 2001 p 23 von reiche 2001 p 20 sashalmi 2022 p 31 citing trepavlov 2007 p 107 1 2 bennigsen 1986 p 198 bennigsen 1986 p 186 bennigsen 1986 p 178 bennigsen 1986 pp 209f kołodziejczyk 2011 p 385 bennigsen 1986 p 199 bennigsen 1986 pp 201f kołodziejczyk 2011 p 180 bennigsen 1986 p 201 bennigsen 1986 pp 210 shevzov 2012 pp 18 19 the years 1448 1589 mark the establishment of autocephaly of the russian church and its growing self perception as the center of orthodoxy in the christian east shevzov 2012 p 20 çolak 2014 p 8 de madariaga 2006 p 52 shevzov 2012 p 19 von reiche 2001 p 16 von reiche 2001 pp 39f 1 2 3 kołodziejczyk 2012 pp 187 188 1 2 3 strauss 2010 pp 32 43 1 2 kołodziejczyk 2012 p 182 kumar 2017 p 89 strauss 1999 p 217 bennigsen 1986 p 194 citing novoselskyy 1948 pp 325f kołodziejczyk 2012 p 188 citing i̇nalcık 1993 p 383 1 2 halenko 2009 p 490 directorate of state archives 2019 pp 43 48 1 2 findley 2010 chpt 1 demir 2016 p 396 goehrke et al 1973 p 231 die gewinnung konstantinopels dieser alte slavophile traum wurde durch geheime abkommen über die auflösung des osmanischen reiches im märz 1915 rußland als wertvoller preis in aussicht gestellt üre 2018 garcía gallo 1945 p 201 citing schunter 1925 pp 48ff and mayer 1926 pp ii 15 19 schmidt 2001 p 106 citing erdmann 1951 p 36 menéndez pidal 1929 p 143 schlieben 2009 pp 228f schlieben 2009 p 237 schlieben 2009 p 181 garcía gallo 1945 pp 213f garcía gallo 1945 p 214 citing menéndez pidal 1929 pp 137 138 and lópez ortiz 1942 pp 43 46 garcía gallo 1945 p 226 garcía gallo 1945 p 226 citing steindorff 1881 pp 484ff garcía gallo 1945 p 220 garcía gallo 1945 p 220 p 227 nr 97 schlieben 2009 p 171 cited bibliography edit anderson matthew smith 1993 the rise of modern diplomacy 1450 1919 routledge isbn 9781317894025 angelov dimiter 2019 the byzantine hellene the life of emperor theodore laskaris and byzantium in the thirteenth century cambridge university press isbn 978 1 108 48071 0 angeliki stathi 2002 ίδρυση αυτοκρατορίας τραπεζούντος από μεγάλους κομνηνούς 1204 establishment of the empire of trebizond by the grand komnenoi 1204 encyclopedia of the hellenic world in greek foundation of the hellenic world retrieved 3 january 2025 asche matthias 2023 das christliche europa der vormoderne zwischen eintracht und zwietracht zur religiösen grundierung alteuropas geschichte europas seine desintegration und integration schreiben vorläufer perzeptionen und perspektiven der europäischen idee hildesheimer europagespräche vii in german vol 1 georg olms verlag pp 201 211 isbn 9783487424125 asatiani nodar janelidze otar 2009 history of georgia publishing house petite isbn 978 9941 9063 6 7 augustynowicz christoph 2013 die union von brest religiöse erinnerungsorte in ostmitteleuropa in german akademie verlag gmbh pp 897 904 doi 10 1524 9783050093437 897 isbn 978 3 05 005658 6 beales derek 1987 joseph ii volume 1 in the shadow of maria theresa 1741 1780 new york cambridge university press bennigsen alexandee 1986 turco tatar past soviet present editions peeters isbn 9068310585 brand charles m 1968 byzantium confronts the west 1180 1204 cambridge massachusetts harvard university press lccn 67 20872 bronevskiy semyon in russian 2004 pavlova irina konstantinovna ed новейшия известия о кавказе собранныя и пополненныя семеном броневским pdf in russian петербургское востоковедение ru isbn 9785858032847 browning robert 1992 the byzantine empire revised ed cua press isbn 978 0 8132 0754 4 burkhardt stefan 2014 mediterranes kaisertum und imperiale ordnungen das lateinische kaiserreich von konstantinopel in german walter de gruyter gmbh co kg isbn 9783050064871 burkhardt stefan 2017 intoxication with virtuality french princes and aegean titles in scholl christian gebhardt torben r clauß jan eds transcultural approaches to the concept of imperial rule in the middle ages peter lang ag pp 295 320 isbn 978 3631706244 jstor j ctv6zdbwx 13 cholakov petar 2024 the influence of roman law on medieval bulgarian legislation in gil xavier ed constitutional moments founding myths charters and constitutions through history brill pp 32 50 isbn 9789004549159 çolak hasan 2014 tekfur fasiliyus and kayser disdain negligence and appropriation of byzantine imperial titulature in the ottoman world in hadjianastasis marios ed frontiers of the ottoman imagination studies in honour of rhoads murphey leiden brill isbn 978 9004283510 de madariaga isabel 2006 ivan the terrible yale university press isbn 9780300143768 debertol markus 2021 türkischer kaiser turcorum tyrannus tyrannenbilder in german de gruyter pp 356 366 doi 10 1515 9783110752373 016 isbn 9783110752373 demir ali 2016 die moderne von muhammad zu atatürk eine analyse des türkischen pfades in die moderne anhand der theorie des kommunikativen handelns von jürgen habermas in german lit verlag münster isbn 9783643802354 detrez raymond 2014 vidin empire of historical dictionary of bulgaria 3rd ed rowman littlefield p 519 isbn 9781442241800 dimitrov ivan zhelev 2010 bulgarian christianity in parry ken ed the blackwell companion to eastern christianity john wiley sons pp 47 72 isbn 9781444333619 directorate of state archives 2019 osmanli rus antlaşmalari 1700 1834 in turkish djokić dejan 2023 a concise history of serbia cambridge university press isbn 9781009308656 eastmond antony 2004 art and identity in thirteenth century byzantium hagia sophia and the empire of trebizond ashgate publishing isbn 0 7546 3575 9 erdmann carl 1951 forschungen zur politischen ideenwelt des frühmittelalters aus dem nachlass des verfassers in german akademie verlag isbn 9783112772904 cite book isbn date incompatibility help f r 2010 caesar as political title in grafton anthony most glenn w settis 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