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success resulted from the federal army s weakness and inability to suppress them 50 madero s vague promises of land reform attracted many peasants throughout the country spontaneous rebellions arose in which ordinary farm laborers miners and other working class mexicans along with much of the country s population of indigenous peoples fought díaz s forces with some success madero attracted the forces of rebel leaders such as pascual orozco pancho villa emiliano zapata and venustiano carranza a young and able revolutionary orozco along with chihuahua governor abraham gonzález formed a powerful military union in the north and although they were not especially committed to madero took mexicali and chihuahua city these victories encouraged alliances with other revolutionary leaders including villa against madero s wishes orozco and villa fought for and won ciudad juárez bordering el paso texas on the south side of the rio grande madero s call to action had unanticipated results such as the magonista rebellion of 1911 in baja california 51 interim presidency may november 1911 edit francisco león de la barra interim president of mexico may november 1911 with the federal army defeated in several battles with irregular voluntary forces díaz s government began negotiations with the revolutionaries in the north in historian edwin lieuwen s assessment victors always attribute their success to their own heroic deeds and superior fighting abilities in the spring of 1911 armed bands under self appointed chiefs arose all over the republic drove díaz officials from the vicinity seized money and stamps and staked out spheres of local authority towns cities and the countryside passed into the hands of the maderistas 50 díaz sued for peace with madero who himself did not want a prolonged and bloody conflict the result was the treaty of ciudad juárez signed on 21 may 1911 the signed treaty stated that díaz would abdicate the presidency along with his vice president ramón corral by the end of may 1911 to be replaced by an interim president francisco león de la barra until elections were held díaz and his family and a number of top supporters were allowed to go into exile 52 when díaz left for exile in paris he was reported as saying madero has unleashed a tiger let us see if he can control it 53 with díaz in exile and new elections to be called in october the power structure of the old regime remained firmly in place francisco león de la barra became interim president pending an election to be held in october 1911 madero considered de la barra an acceptable figure for the interim presidency since he was not a científico or politician but rather a catholic lawyer and diplomat 54 he appeared to be a moderate but the german ambassador to mexico paul von hintze who associated with the interim president said of him that de la barra wants to accommodate himself with dignity to the inevitable advance of the ex revolutionary influence while accelerating the widespread collapse of the madero party 55 the federal army despite its numerous defeats by the revolutionaries remained intact as the government s force madero called on revolutionary fighters to lay down their arms and demobilize which emiliano zapata and the revolutionaries in morelos refused to do the cabinet of de la barra and the mexican congress was filled with supporters of the díaz regime madero campaigned vigorously for the presidency during this interim period but revolutionaries who had supported him and brought about díaz s resignation were dismayed that the sweeping reforms they sought were not immediately instituted he did introduce some progressive reforms including improved funding for rural schools promoting some aspects of agrarian reform to increase the amount of productive land labor reforms including workman s compensation and the eight hour day but also defended the right of the government to intervene in strikes according to historian peter v n henderson de la barra s and congress s actions suggests that few porfirians wished to return to the status quo of the dictatorship rather the thoughtful progressive members of the porfirian meritocracy recognized the need for change 56 de la barra s government sent general victoriano huerta to fight in morelos against the zapatistas burning villages and wreaking havoc his actions drove a wedge between zapata and madero which widened when madero was inaugurated as president 57 zapata remained in arms continuously until his assassination in 1919 madero won the 1911 election decisively and was inaugurated as president in november 1911 but his movement had lost crucial momentum and revolutionary supporters in the months of the interim presidency and left in place the federal army madero presidency november 1911 february 1913 edit main articles francisco i madero and 1911 mexican general election francisco i madero as president of mexico madero and northern revolutionary pascual orozco who rebelled against him in 1912 madero had drawn some loyal and militarily adept supporters who brought down the díaz regime by force of arms madero himself was not a natural soldier and his decision to dismiss the revolutionary forces that brought him to power isolated him politically he was an inexperienced politician who had never held office before he firmly held to democratic ideals which many consider evidence of naivete his election as president in october 1911 raised high expectations among many mexicans for positive change the treaty of ciudad juárez guaranteed that the essential structure of the díaz regime including the federal army was kept in place 58 madero fervently held to his position that mexico needed real democracy which included regime change by free elections a free press and the right of labor to organize and strike the rebels who brought him to power were demobilized and madero called on these men of action to return to civilian life according to a story told by pancho villa a leader who had defeated díaz s army and forced his resignation and exile he told madero at a banquet in ciudad juárez in 1911 you madero sir have destroyed the revolution it s simple this bunch of dandies have made a fool of you and this will eventually cost us our necks yours included 59 ignoring the warning madero increasingly relied on the federal army as armed rebellions broke out in mexico in 1911 12 with particularly threatening insurrections led by emiliano zapata in morelos and pascual orozco in the north both zapata and orozco had led revolts that had put pressure on díaz to resign and both felt betrayed by madero once he became president the press embraced its newfound freedom and madero became a target of its criticism organized labor which had been suppressed under díaz could and did stage strikes which foreign entrepreneurs saw as threatening their interests although there had been labor unrest under díaz labor s new freedom to organize also came with anti american currents 60 the anarcho syndicalist casa del obrero mundial house of the world worker was founded in september 1912 by antonio díaz soto y gama manuel sarabia and lázaro gutiérrez de lara and served as a center of agitation and propaganda but it was not a formal labor union 61 62 political parties proliferated one of the most important was the national catholic party which in several regions of the country was particularly strong 63 several catholic newspapers were in circulation during the madero era including el país and la nación only to be later suppressed under the victoriano huerta regime 1913 1914 64 under díaz relations between the roman catholic church and the mexican government were stable with the anticlerical laws of the mexican constitution of 1857 remaining in place but not enforced so conflict was muted 65 during madero s presidency church state conflict was channeled peacefully 65 the national catholic party became an important political opposition force during the madero presidency 66 in the june 1912 congressional elections militarily quiescent states the catholic party pcn did conspicuously well 67 during that period the catholic association of mexican youth acjm was founded although the national catholic party was an opposition party to the madero regime madero clearly welcomed the emergence of a kind of two party system catholic and liberal he encouraged catholic political involvement echoing the exhortations of the episcopate 68 what was emerging during the madero regime was díaz s old policy of church state detente was being continued perhaps more rapidly and on surer foundations 66 the catholic church in mexico was working within the new democratic system promoted by madero but it had its interests to promote some of which were the forces of the old conservative church while the new progressive church supporting social catholicism of the 1891 papal encyclical rerum novarum was also a current when madero was overthrown in february 1913 by counter revolutionaries the conservative wing of the church supported the coup 69 madero did not have the experience or the ideological inclination to reward men who had helped bring him to power some revolutionary leaders expected personal rewards such as pascual orozco of chihuahua others wanted major reforms most especially emiliano zapata and andrés molina enríquez who had long worked for land reform 70 madero met personally with zapata telling the guerrilla leader that the agrarian question needed careful study his meaning was clear madero a member of a rich northern hacendado family was not about to implement comprehensive agrarian reform for aggrieved peasants madero and his military staff officers mexico national palace 1911 rather than keeping the revolutionary force that had helped bring him to power madero in a fatal decision kept the federal army intact in response to this lack of action zapata promulgated the plan de ayala in november 1911 declaring himself in rebellion against madero he renewed guerrilla warfare in the state of morelos madero sent the federal army to deal with zapata unsuccessfully zapata remained true to the demands of the plan de ayala and in rebellion against every central government up until his assassination by an agent of president venustiano carranza in 1919 the northern revolutionary general pascual orozco a leader in taking ciudad juárez had expected to become governor of chihuahua in 1911 although orozco was the man of the hour madero gave the governorship instead to abraham gonzález a respectable revolutionary with the explanation that orozco had not reached the legal age to serve as governor a tactic that was a useful constitutional alibi for thwarting the ambitions of young popular revolutionary leaders 71 madero had put orozco in charge of the large force of rurales in chihuahua but to a gifted revolutionary fighter who had helped bring about díaz s fall madero s reward was insulting after madero refused to agree to social reforms calling for better working hours pay and conditions orozco organized his army the orozquistas also called the colorados red flaggers and issued his plan orozquista on 25 march 1912 enumerating why he was rising in revolt against madero 72 in april 1912 madero dispatched general victoriano huerta of the federal army to put down orozco s dangerous revolt madero had kept the army intact as an institution using it to put down domestic rebellions against his regime huerta was a professional soldier and continued to serve in the army under the new commander in chief huerta s loyalty lay with general bernardo reyes rather than with the civilian madero in 1912 under pressure from his cabinet madero called on huerta to suppress orozco s rebellion with huerta s success against orozco he emerged as a powerful figure for conservative forces opposing the madero regime 73 during the orozco revolt the governor of chihuahua mobilized the state militia to support the federal army pancho villa now a colonel in the militia was called up at this time in mid april at the head of 400 irregular troops he joined the forces commanded by huerta huerta however viewed villa as an ambitious competitor during a visit to huerta s headquarters in june 1912 after an incident in which he refused to return a number of stolen horses villa was imprisoned on charges of insubordination and robbery and sentenced to death 74 raúl madero the president s brother intervened to save villa s life jailed in mexico city villa escaped and fled to the united states later to return and play a major role in the civil wars of 1913 1915 there were other rebellions one led by bernardo reyes and another by félix díaz nephew of the former president that were quickly put down and the generals jailed they were both in mexico city prisons and despite their geographical separation they were able to foment yet another rebellion in february 1913 this period came to be known as the ten tragic days la decena trágica which ended with madero s resignation and assassination and huerta assuming the presidency although madero had reason to distrust victoriano huerta madero placed him in charge of suppressing the mexico city revolt as interim commander he did not know that huerta had been invited to join the conspiracy but had initially held back 73 during the fighting that took place in the capital the civilian population was subjected to artillery exchanges street fighting and economic disruption perhaps deliberately caused by the coup plotters to demonstrate that madero was unable to keep order 75 a military coup overthrows madero 9 22 february 1913 edit main articles ten tragic days and pact of the embassy corpses in front of the national palace during the ten tragic days photographer manuel ramos 76 the madero presidency was unravelling to no one s surprise except perhaps madero s whose support continued to deteriorate even among his political allies madero s supporters in congress before the coup the so called renovadores the renewers criticized him saying the revolution is heading toward collapse and is pulling the government to which it gave rise down with it for the simple reason that it is not governing with revolutionaries compromises and concessions to the supporters of the old díaz regime are the main causes of the unsettling situation in which the government that emerged from the revolution finds itself the regime appears relentlessly bent on suicide 77 huerta formally in charge of the defense of madero s regime allowed the rebels to hold the armory in mexico city the ciudadela while he consolidated his political power he changed allegiance from madero to the rebels under félix díaz bernardo reyes having been killed on the first day of the open armed conflict u s ambassador henry lane wilson who had done all he could to undermine american confidence in madero s presidency brokered the pact of the embassy which formalized the alliance between félix díaz and huerta with the backing of the united states 78 ...
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