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countries tfeu article 63 following a report of the delors commission in 1988 274 the treaty of maastricht made economic and monetary union an objective first by completing the internal market second by creating a european system of central banks to coordinate common monetary policy and third by locking exchange rates and introducing a single currency the euro today 19 member states have adopted the euro while 9 member states have either determined to opt out or their accession has been delayed particularly since the european debt crisis according to tfeu articles 119 and 127 the objective of the european central bank and other central banks ought to be price stability this has been criticised for apparently being superior to the objective of full employment in the treaty on european union article 3 275 social and market regulations edit see also market economy and stakeholder corporate all enterprises and markets are governed through legal rights for consumers employees investors or the public in laws of property contract competition environmental law and other social and economic rights 276 eu law harmonises a minimum floor of rights so that stakeholders can fully participate in social progress 277 while the european economic community originally focused on free movement and dismantling barriers to trade more eu law today concerns regulation of the social market economy 278 in 1976 the court of justice said in defrenne v sabena the goal was not merely an economic union but to ensure social progress and seek the constant improvement of the living and working conditions of their peoples 279 on this view stakeholders in each member state might not have the capacity to take advantage of expanding trade in a globalising economy groups with greater bargaining power can exploit weaker legal rights in other member states for example a corporation could shift production to member states with a lower minimum wage to increase shareholder profit even if production costs more and workers are paid less this would mean an aggregate loss of social wealth and a race to the bottom in human development to make globalisation fair the eu establishes a minimum floor of rights for the stakeholders in enterprise for consumers workers investors shareholders creditors and the public each field of law is vast so eu law is designed to be subsidiary to comprehensive rules in each member state member states may go beyond the harmonised minimum acting as laboratories of democracy 280 eu law makes basic standards of exit where markets operate rights enforceable in court and voice especially through votes in enterprise 281 rules of competition law balance the interests of different groups generally to favour consumers for the larger purpose in the treaty on european union article 3 3 of a highly competitive social market economy 282 the eu is bound by the treaty on the functioning of the european union article 345 to in no way prejudice the rules in member states governing the system of property ownership 273 this means the eu is bound to be neutral to member state s choice to take enterprises into public ownership or to privatise them while there have been academic proposals for a european civil code and projects to frame non binding principles of contract and tort harmonisation has only occurred for conflict of laws and intellectual property consumer protection edit v t e consumer law sources tfeu art 169 and cfreu art 38 product liability directive 1985 unfair terms in consumer contracts directive 1993 banco español de crédito sa v camino 2012 c 618 10 rwe ag v verbraucherzentrale nrw ev 2013 c 92 11 brusse v jahani bv 2013 c 488 11 aziz v caixa d estalvis de catalunya 2013 c 415 11 kušionová v smart capital a s 2014 c 34 13 unfair commercial practices directive 2005 consumer rights directive 2011 see also eu law see also european consumer law and consumer protection protection of european consumers has been a central part of developing the eu internal market the treaty on the functioning of the european union article 169 enables the eu to follow the ordinary legislative procedure to protect consumers health safety and economic interests and promote rights to information education and to organise themselves in order to safeguard their interests 283 all member states may grant higher protection and a high level of consumer protection is regarded as a fundamental right 284 beyond these general principles and outside specific sectors there are four main directives the product liability directive 1985 unfair terms in consumer contracts directive 1993 unfair commercial practices directive 2005 and the consumer rights directive 2011 requiring information and cancellation rights for consumers as a whole the law is designed to ensure that consumers in the eu are entitled to the same minimum rights wherever they shop and largely follows inspiration from theories of consumer protection developed in california and the consumer bill of rights proclaimed by john f kennedy in 1962 the court of justice has continually affirmed that the need for more consumer rights than in commercial contracts both because consumers tend to lack information and they have less bargaining power 285 due to their unequal bargaining power 285 consumers are entitled to a legislative charter of rights to safe and healthy products fair terms proper information free from misleading advertising and marketing and rights of cancellation the product liability directive 1985 was the first consumer protection measure it creates strict enterprise liability for all producers and retailers for any harm to consumers from products as a way to promote basic standards of health and safety 286 any producer or supplier if the ultimate producer is insolvent of a product is strictly liable to compensate a consumer for any damage caused by a defective product 287 a defect is anything which falls below what a consumer is entitled to expect and this essentially means that products should be safe for their purpose a narrow defensive is available if a producer can show that a defect could not be known by any scientific method thought this has never been successfully invoked because it is generally thought a profit making enterprise should not be able to externalise the risks of its activities the unfair terms in consumer contracts directive 1993 was the second main measure 288 under article 3 1 a term is unfair and not binding if it is not individually negotiated and if contrary to the requirement of good faith it causes a significant imbalance in the parties rights and obligations arising under the contract to the detriment of the consumer the court of justice has continually affirmed that the directive as recital 16 states is based on the idea that the consumer is in a weak position vis à vis the seller or supplier as regards both his bargaining power and his level of knowledge 289 terms which are very skewed are to be conclusively regarded as contrary to good faith and therefore unfair 290 for example in rwe ag v verbraucherzentrale nrw ev clauses in gas supply contracts enabling corporation rwe to unilaterally vary prices were advised by the court of justice to be not sufficiently transparent and therefore unfair 291 in brusse v jahani bv 292 the court of justice advised that clauses in a tenancy contract requiring tenants pay 25 per day were likely unfair and would have to be entirely void without replacement if they were not substituted with more precise mandatory terms in national legislation in aziz v caixa d estalvis de catalunya following the 2008 financial crisis the european court of justice advised that even terms regarding repossession of homes in spain had to be assessed for fairness by national courts 293 in kušionová v smart capital a s the court of justice held that consumer law was to be interpreted in the light of fundamental rights including the right to housing if a home could be repossessed 294 because consumer law operates through directives national courts have the final say on applying the general principles set out by the court of justice s case law unfair commercial practices directive 2005 29 ec consumer rights directive 2011 83 eu payment services directive 2007 64 ec late payments directive 2011 7 eu labour rights edit v t e european labour rights tfeu arts 151 153 cfreu arts 12 15 20 34 echr arts 4 6 9 11 employment information directive 1991 working time directive 2003 institutions for occupational retirement provision directive 2003 pregnant workers directive 1992 parental leave directive 2010 safety and health at work directive 1989 posted workers directive 1996 part time work directive 1997 fixed term work directive 1999 temporary agency work directive 2008 equality framework directive 2000 race equality directive 2000 equal treatment directive 2006 wilson and palmer v united kingdom 2002 echr 552 demir and baykara v turkey 2008 echr 1345 information and consultation directive 2002 european works council directive 2009 employee involvement directive 2001 european company regulation 2001 transfers of undertakings directive 2001 collective redundancies directive 1998 insolvency protection directive 2008 see eu law and labour law main articles european labour law ilo conventions uk labour law german labour law french labour law and united states labor law while free movement of workers was central to the first european economic community agreement the development of european labour law has been a gradual process originally the ohlin report of 1956 recommended that labour standards did not need to be harmonised although a general principle of anti discrimination between men and women was included in the early treaties increasingly the absence of labour rights was seen as inadequate given the capacity for a race to the bottom in international trade if corporations can shift jobs and production to countries with low wages today the eu is required under tfeu article 147 to contribute to a high level of employment by encouraging cooperation between member states 295 this has not resulted in legislation which usually requires taxation and fiscal stimulus for significant change while the european central bank s monetary policy has been acutely controversial during the european debt crisis under article 153 1 the eu is able to use the ordinary legislation procedure on a list of labour law fields this notably excludes wage regulation and collective bargaining 296 generally four main fields of eu regulation of labour rights touch 1 individual labour rights 2 anti discrimination regulations 3 rights to information consultation and participation at work and 4 rights to job security in virtually all cases the eu follows the principle that member states can always create rights more beneficial to workers this is because the fundamental principle of labour law is that employees unequal bargaining power justifies substitution of rules in property and contract with positive social rights so that people may earn a living to fully participate in a democratic society 297 the eu s competences generally follow principles codified in the community charter of the fundamental social rights of workers 1989 298 introduced in the social chapter of the treaty of maastricht initially the uk had opted out because of opposition by the conservative party but was acceded to when the labour party won the 1997 general election in the treaty of amsterdam the european social charter 1961 art 2 1 requires the working week to be progressively reduced with increase of productivity 299 the working time directive 2003 requires 28 paid holidays a year 300 with two day weekends most people in the eu work two thirds of the year or less 301 the first group of directives create a range of individual rights in eu employment relationships the employment information directive 1991 requires that every employee however defined by member state law has the right to a written statement of their employment contract while there is no wage regulation the institutions for occupational retirement provision directive 2003 requires that pension benefits are protected through a national insurance fund that information is provided to beneficiaries and minimum standards of governance are observed 302 most member states go far beyond these requirements particularly by requiring a vote for employees in who manages their money 303 reflecting basic standards in the universal declaration of human rights and ilo conventions 304 the working time directive 2003 requires a minimum of 4 weeks totalling 28 days paid holidays each year 305 a minimum of 20 minute paid rest breaks for 6 hour work shifts limits on night work or time spent on dangerous work 306 and a maximum 48 hour working week unless a worker individually consents 307 the parental leave directive 2010 creates a bare minimum of 4 months of unpaid leave for parents mothers fathers or legal guardians to care for children before they turn 8 years old and the pregnant workers directive 1992 creates a right for mothers to a minimum of 14 weeks paid leave to care for children 308 finally the safety and health at work directive 1989 requires basic requirements to prevent and insure against workplace risks with employee consultation and participation 309 and this is complemented by specialised directives ranging from work equipment to dangerous industries 310 in almost all cases all member states go significantly beyond this minimum the objective of transnational regulation is therefore to progressively raise the minimum floor in line with economic development second equality was affirmed by the court of justice in kücükdeveci v swedex gmbh co kg 311 to be a general principle of eu law further to this the part time work directive 1997 fixed term work directive 1999 and temporary agency work directive 2008 generally require that people who do not have ordinary full time permanent contracts are treated no less favourably than their colleagues however the scope of the protected worker is left to member state law and the tawd 2008 only applies to basic working conditions mostly pay working hours and participation rights and enabled member states to have a qualifying period the race equality directive 2000 equality framework directive 2000 and equal treatment directive 2006 prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation disability religion or belief age race and gender as well as direct discrimination there is a prohibition on indirect discrimination where employers apply a neutral rule to everybody but this has a disproportionate impact on the protected group the rules are not consolidated and on gender pay potentially limited in not enabling a hypothetical comparator or comparators in outsourced business equality rules do not yet apply to child care rights which only give women substantial time off and consequently hinder equality in men and women caring for children 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