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an be the main creators and distributors of news 10 citizen journalism should not be confused with community journalism or civic journalism both of which are practiced by professional journalists collaborative journalism which is the practice of professional and non professional journalists working together 11 and social journalism which denotes a digital publication with a hybrid of professional and non professional journalism 12 according to seungahn nah and deborah s chung in their book understanding citizen journalism as civic participation citizen journalism is highly embedded in local communities where community residents engage in day to day routines of community storytelling about local politics public affairs community events neighborhood issues schools public transportation land uses and environments and much more citizen journalism is a specific form of both citizen media and user generated content ugc by juxtaposing the term citizen with its attendant qualities of civic mindedness and social responsibility with that of journalism which refers to a particular profession courtney c radsch argues that this term best describes this particular form of online and digital journalism conducted by amateurs because it underscores the link between the practice of journalism and its relation to the political and public sphere 13 citizen journalism was made more feasible by the development of various online internet platforms 10 new media technology such as social networking and media sharing websites in addition to the increasing prevalence of cellular telephones have made citizen journalism more accessible to people worldwide recent advances in new media have started to have a profound political impact 14 due to the availability of technology citizens often can report breaking news more quickly than traditional media reporters notable examples of citizen journalism reporting from major world events are the 2010 haiti earthquake the arab spring the occupy wall street movement the 2013 protests in turkey the euromaidan events in ukraine and syrian civil war the 2014 ferguson unrest the black lives matter movement and the russian invasion of ukraine being that citizen journalism is yet to develop a conceptual framework and guiding principles it can be heavily opinionated and subjective making it more supplemental than primary in terms of forming public opinion 10 critics of the phenomenon including professional journalists and news organizations claim that citizen journalism is unregulated amateur and haphazard in quality and coverage furthermore citizen journalists due to their lack of professional affiliation are thought to lack resources as well as focus on how best to serve the public 10 a research team of citizen journalists created an oer library that contains video interviews to provide access to reliable sources 15 theory edit citizen journalism as a form of alternative media presents a radical challenge to the professionalized and institutionalized practices of the mainstream media 16 according to flew there have been three elements critical to the rise of citizen journalism open publishing collaborative editing and distributed content 17 mark glaser said in 2006 18 people without professional journalism training can use the tools of modern technology and the global distribution of the internet to create augment or fact check media on their own or in collaboration with others in what is participatory journalism 2003 19 j d lasica classifies media for citizen journalism into the following types audience participation such as user comments attached to news stories personal blogs photographs or video footage captured from personal mobile cameras or local news written by residents of a community independent news and information websites consumer reports the drudge report full fledged participatory news sites one convo nowpublic ohmynews digitaljournal com groundreport fair observer collaborative and contributory media sites slashdot kuro5hin newsvine other kinds of thin media mailing lists email newsletters personal broadcasting sites video broadcast sites such as kenradio open source news platforms such as veiwapp and wikinews the literature of citizen alternative and participatory journalism is most often situated in a democratic context and theorized as a response to corporate news media dominated by an economic logic 20 some scholars have sought to extend the study of citizen journalism beyond the developed western world including sylvia moretzsohn 21 courtney c radsch 22 and clemencia rodríguez 23 radsch for example wrote that throughout the arab world citizen journalists have emerged as the vanguard of new social movements dedicated to promoting human rights and democratic values 24 theories of citizenship edit according to vincent campbell theories of citizenship can be categorized into two core groups those that consider journalism for citizenship and those that consider journalism as citizenship the classical model of citizenship is the base of the two theories of citizenship the classical model is rooted in the ideology of informed citizens and places emphasis on the role of journalists rather than on citizens 25 the classical model has four main characteristics journalists role of informing citizens citizens are assumed to be informed if they regularly attend to the news they are supplied with more informed citizens are more likely to participate the more informed citizens participate the more democratic a state is more likely to be 25 the first characteristic upholds the theory that journalism is for citizens one of the main issues with this is that there is a normative judgement surrounding the amount and nature of information that citizens should have as well as what the relationship between the two should be one branch of journalism for citizens is the monitorial citizen coined by michael schudson the monitorial citizen suggests that citizens appropriately and strategically select what news and information they consume the monitorial citizen along with other forms of this ideology conceive individuals as those who do things with information to enact change and citizenship however this production of information does not equal to an act of citizenship but instead an act of journalism therefore citizens and journalists are portrayed as distinctive roles whereas journalism is used by citizens for citizenship and conversely journalists serve citizens 25 the second theory considers journalism as citizenship this theory focuses on the different aspects of citizen identity and activity and understands citizen journalism as directly constituting citizenship the term liquid citizenship coined by zizi papacharissi depicts how the lifestyles that individuals engage in allow them to interact with other individuals and organizations which thus remaps the conceptual periphery of civic political and social this liquid citizenship allows the interactions and experiences that individuals face to become citizen journalism where they create their own forms of journalism an alternative approach of journalism as citizenship rests between the distinction between dutiful citizens and actualizing citizens dutiful citizens engage in traditional citizenship practices while actualizing citizens engage in non traditional citizenship practices this alternative approach suggests that actualizing citizens are less likely to use traditional media and more likely to use online and social media as sources of information discussion and participation thus journalism in the form of online and social media practices become a form of citizenship for actualizing citizens 25 criticisms have been made against citizen journalism especially from among professionals in the field citizen journalists are often portrayed as unreliable biased and untrained as opposed to professionals who have recognition paid work unionized labour and behaviour that is often politically neutral and unaffiliated at least in the claim if not in the actuality 26 history edit citizen journalist at english defense league demonstration in london 2011 the idea that every citizen can engage in acts of journalism has a long history in the united states as early as the 1920s journalist and political commentator walter lippman and american philosopher john dewey debated the role of journalism in democracy including the extent that the public should participate in the news gathering and production processes 27 according to research conducted by blaagaard 2018 citizen journalism in st croix between 1915 and 1925 provided a platform for colonized communities helping them express their perspectives and address certain social injustices that were overlooked at the time by colonial authorities local publications for example the herald became a pathway for unheard voices to challenge dominant narratives 28 the contemporary citizen journalist movement emerged after journalists began to question the predictability of their coverage of events such as the 1988 u s presidential election those journalists became part of the public or civic journalism movement which sought to counter the erosion of trust in the news media and the widespread disillusionment with politics and civic affairs 29 30 31 initially discussions of public journalism focused on promoting journalism that was for the people by changing the way professional reporters did their work according to leonard witt however early public journalism efforts were often part of special projects that were expensive time consuming and episodic too often these projects dealt with an issue and moved on professional journalists were driving the discussion they would have the goal of doing a story on welfare to work or the environment or traffic problems or the economy and then they would recruit a cross section of citizens and chronicle their points of view since not all reporters and editors bought into this form of public journalism and some outright opposed it reaching out to the people from the newsroom was never an easy task by 2003 in fact the movement seemed to be petering out with the pew center for civic journalism closing its doors 3 traditionally the term citizen journalism has had a history of struggle with deliberating on a concise and mutually agreed upon definition even today the term lacks a clear form of conceptualization although the term lacks conceptualization alternative names of the term are unable to comprehensively capture the phenomenon for example one of the interchangeable names with citizen journalism is user generated content ugc however the issue with this alternative term is that it eliminates the potential civic virtues of citizen journalism and considers it to be stunted and proprietorial 32 with today s technology the citizen journalist movement has found new life as the average person can capture news and distribute it globally as yochai benkler has noted the capacity to make meaning to encode and decode humanly meaningful statements and the capacity to communicate one s meaning around the world are held by or readily available to at least many hundreds of millions of users around the globe 33 professor mary rose papandrea a constitutional law professor at unc school of law notes in her article citizen journalism and the reporter s privilege that 34 i n many ways the definition of journalism has now come full circle when the first amendment was adopted freedom of the press referred quite literally to the freedom to publish using a printing press rather than the freedom of organized entities engaged in the publishing business it was not until the late nineteenth century that the concept of the press morphed into a description of individuals and companies engaged in an often competitive commercial media enterprise a 2004 trend of citizen journalism has been the emergence of what blogger jeff jarvis terms hyperlocal journalism as online news sites invite contributions from local residents of their subscription areas who often report on topics that conventional newspapers tend to ignore 35 we are the traditional journalism model turned upside down explains mary lou fulton the publisher of the northwest voice in bakersfield california instead of being the gatekeeper telling people that what s important to them isn t news we re just opening up the gates and letting people come on in we are a better community newspaper for having thousands of readers who serve as the eyes and ears for the voice rather than having everything filtered through the views of a small group of reporters and editors 36 citizen journalists edit according to jay rosen citizen journalists are the people formerly known as the audience who were on the receiving end of a media system that ran one way in a broadcasting pattern with high entry fees and a few firms competing to speak very loudly while the rest of the population listened in isolation from one another and who today are not in a situation like that at all the people formerly known as the audience are simply the public made realer less fictional more able less predictable 37 abraham zapruder who filmed the assassination of president john fitzgerald kennedy with a home movie camera is sometimes presented as an ancestor to citizen journalists 38 egyptian citizen wael abbas was awarded several international reporting prizes for his blog misr digital digital egypt and a video he publicized of two policemen beating a bus driver helped lead to their conviction 39 during 9 11 many eyewitness accounts of the terrorist attacks on the world trade center came from citizen journalists images and stories from citizen journalists close to the world trade center offered content that played a major role in the story 40 41 2004 tsunami picture taken by a bystander and uploaded to wikimedia commons in 2004 when the 9 1 magnitude underwater earthquake caused a huge tsunami in banda aceh indonesia and across the indian ocean a weblog based virtual network of previously unrelated bloggers emerged that covered the news in real time and became a vital source for the traditional media for the first week after the tsunami 42 a large amount of news footage from many people who experienced the tsunami was widely broadcast 43 as well as a good deal of on the scene citizen reporting and blogger analysis that was subsequently picked up by the major media outlets worldwide 42 subsequent to the citizen journalism coverage of the disaster and aftermath researchers have suggested that citizen journalists may in fact play a critical role in the disaster warning system itself potentially with higher reliability than the networks of tsunami warning equipment based on technology alone which then require interpretation by disinterested third parties 44 the microblog twitter played an important role during the 2009 iranian election protests after foreign journalists had effectively been barred from reporting twitte...
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