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pril 1919 169 political assassination became a frequent way to eliminate rivals both during and after the revolution all of the major leaders of the revolution were later assassinated madero in 1913 zapata in 1919 carranza in 1920 villa in 1923 and obregón in 1928 porfirio díaz victoriano huerta and pascual orozco had gone into exile believing that he would also go into exile madero turned himself into huerta s custody huerta considered that too dangerous a course since he could have been a rallying point huerta did not want to execute madero publicly the cover story of madero and pino suárez being caught in the crossfire gave huerta plausible deniability he needed it since he only had a thin veil of legitimacy in his ascention to the presidency 170 the bodies of madero and pino suárez were not photographed nor were they displayed but pictures of madero s clothing were taken showing bullet holes in the back zapata s death in 1919 was at the hands of carranza s military there was no need for a coverup since he had remained a threat to the carranza regime photos of the dead zapata were taken and published as proof of his demise but carranza was tainted by the deed 170 the economic damage which the revolution caused lasted for years the population losses which were due to military and civilian casualties the displacement of populations which migrated to safer areas and the damage to the infrastructure all had significant impacts the nation would not regain the level of development which it reached in 1910 for another twenty years 171 the railway lines which were constructed during the porfiriato facilitated the movement of men horses and artillery and they were extensively used by all of the factions this was much greater in northern mexico it was less so in the areas controlled by zapata when men and horses were transported by rail the soldiers rode on the tops of boxcars 172 railway lines engines and rolling stock were targeted for sabotage and the rebuilding of tracks and bridges was an ongoing issue major battles in the north were fought along railway lines or railway junctions such as torreón early on northern revolutionaries also added hospital cars so the wounded could be treated horses remained important in troop movements they were either directly ridden to combat zones or they were loaded on trains infantry also still played a role arms purchases mainly from the united states gave northern armies almost inexhaustible access to rifles and ammunition so long as they had the means to pay for them new military technology particularly machine guns mechanized death on a large scale 173 el paso texas became a major supplier of weaponry to the constitutionalist army 174 cultural aspects of the mexican revolution edit there was considerable cultural production during the revolution itself including printmaking music and photography while in the post revolutionary era revolutionary themes in painting and literature shaped historical memory and understanding of the revolution journalism and propaganda edit anti díaz publications before the outbreak of the revolution helped galvanize opposition to him and he cracked down with censorship as president madero believed in freedom of the press which helped galvanize opposition to his own regime the constitutionalists had an active propaganda program paying writers to draft appeals to opinion in the u s and to disparage the reputations of villa and zapata as reactionaries bandits and unenlightened peasants el paso texas just across from ciudad juárez was an important site for revolutionary journalism in english and spanish mariano azuela wrote los de abajo the underdogs in el paso and published in serial form there 175 the alliance carranza made with the casa del obrero mundial helped fund that appealed to the urban working class particularly in early 1915 before obregón s victories over villa and gonzález s over zapata once the armed opposition was less of a threat carranza dissolved vanguardia as a publication 176 meanwhile in the united states mexican americans created newspapers to help with the war effort denouncing diaz s regime as well as professing their support to the revolution 177 there were multiple newspapers written in the spanish language most notably la cronica the chronicle in english created by nicasio idar and his family in laredo texas a city which saw much action as a border town la cronica as well as other chicano newspapers would mostly cover stories about the mexican american and tejano communities in the border regions as well as supporting the revolution 177 these articles were named fronterizo by the border in english a newspaper dedicated to describing life in the border regions which would write about mexican americans and their long rooted history and culture pertaining to these lands as people living by the international border would be called fronterizos border dwellers 177 these fronterizos would start out with two goals to decry the racism and discrimination experienced by mexicans and mexicans americans in the united states and to support the ongoing reforms in mexico equating the tyranny of porfirio díaz to that of white texan politicians a month after the start of the conflict idar from la cronica argued that mexican immigrants and american born mexican americans should be inspired by the revolution s promise of land reform to fight for more civil rights in the united states fronterizos worked to produce a nationalistic perspective placing the borderlands as an integral part of mexican culture history and as a crucial part to the revolution as the borderlands and its communities have been ignored by both the united states and mexican governments 177 prints and cartoons edit josé guadalupe posada the calavera maderista during the late porfiriato political cartooning and print making developed as popular forms of art the most well known print maker of that period is josé guadalupe posada whose satirical prints particularly featuring skeletons circulated widely 178 posada died in early 1913 so his caricatures are only of the early revolution one published in el vale panchito entitled oratory and music shows madero atop a pile of papers and the plan of san luis potosí haranguing a dark skinned mexican whose large sombrero has the label pueblo people madero is in a dapper suit the caption reads offerings to the people to rise to the presidency 179 political cartoons by mexicans as well as americans caricatured the situation in mexico for a mass readership 180 political broadsides including songs of the revolutionary period were also a popular form of visual art after 1920 mexican muralism and printmaking were two major forms of revolutionary art prints were easily reproducible and circulated widely while murals commissioned by the mexican government necessitated a journey to view them printmaking emerged as a favored medium alongside government sponsored mural painting among artists ready to do battle for a new aesthetic as well as a new political order 181 diego rivera better known for his painting than printmaking reproduced his depiction of zapata in the murals in the cortés palace in cuernavaca in a 1932 print 182 photography motion pictures and propaganda edit child soldier 183 the mexican revolution was extensively photographed as well as filmed so that there is a large contemporaneous visual record the mexican revolution and photography were intertwined 184 there was a large foreign viewership for still and moving images of the revolution the photographic record is by no means complete since much of the violence took place in relatively remote places but it was a media event covered by photographers photojournalists and professional cinematographers those behind the lens were hampered by the large heavy cameras that impeded capturing action images but no longer was written text enough with photographs illustrating and verifying the written word the revolution depended heavily from its inception on visual representations and in particular on photographs 185 the large number of mexican and foreign photographers followed the action and stoked public interest in it among the foreign photographers were jimmy hare otis a aultman homer scott and walter horne images appeared in newspapers and magazines as well as postcards 186 horne was associated with the mexican war postcard company 187 iconic image of villa in ojinaga a publicity still taken by mutual film corporation photographer john davidson wheelan in january 1914 188 most prominent of the documentary film makers were salvador toscano and jesús h abitía and some 80 cameramen from the u s filmed as freelancers or employed by film companies the footage has been edited and reconstructed into documentary films memories of a mexican carmen toscano de moreno 1950 and epics of the mexican revolution gustavo carrera 189 principal leaders of the revolution were well aware of the propaganda element of documentary film making and pancho villa contracted with an american film company to record for viewers in the u s his leadership on the battlefield the film has been lost but the story of the film making was interpreted in the hbo scripted film and starring pancho villa as himself 190 the largest collection of still photographs of the revolution is the casasola archive named for photographer agustín casasola 1874 1938 with nearly 500 000 images held by the fototeca nacional in pachuca a multivolume history of the revolution historia gráfica de la revolución mexicana 1900 1960 contains hundreds of images from the era along with explanatory text 191 painting edit josé clemente orozco the trench mural in the san ildefonso college mexico city venustiano carranza attracted artists and intellectuals to the constitutionalist cause painter sculptor and essayist gerardo murillo known as dr atl was ardently involved in art production in the cause of the revolution he was involved with the anarcho syndicalist labor organization the casa del obrero mundial and in met and encouraged josé clemente orozco and david alfaro siqueiros in producing political art 192 the government of álvaro obregón 1920 24 and his minister of education josé vasconcelos commissioned artists to decorate government buildings of the colonial era with murals depicting mexico s history many of these focused on aspects of the revolution the big three of mexican muralism diego rivera orozco and siqueiros produced narratives of the revolution shaping historical memory and interpretation 193 194 music edit soy zapatista del edo de morelos i m a zapatista from the state of morelos a southern corrido written by the revolutionary marciano silva es corrido sheet music celebrating the entry of francisco i madero into mexico city in 1911 a number of traditional mexican songs or corridos were written at the time serving as a kind of news report and functioned as propaganda memorializing aspects of the mexican revolution 195 196 the term adelitas an alternative word for soldaderas is from a corrido titled la adelita the song la cucaracha with numerous verses was popular at the time of the revolution and subsequently and is too in the present day published corridos often had images of particular revolutionary heroes along with the verses literature edit few novels of the mexican revolution were written at the time mariano azuela s los de abajo translated as the underdogs is a notable one originally published in serial form in newspapers literature is a lens through which to see the revolution 197 nellie campobello is one of the few women writers of the revolution her cartucho 1931 is an account of the revolution in northern mexico emphasizing the role of villistas when official discourse was erasing villa s memory and emphasizing nationalist and centralized ideas of the revolution 198 martín luis guzmán s el águila y el serpiente 1928 and la sombra del caudillo 1929 drew on his experiences in the constitutionalist army 199 200 in the fiction of carlos fuentes particularly the death of artemio cruz the revolution and its perceived betrayal are key factors in driving the narrative gender edit the revolution that occurred during 1910 greatly affected gender roles present in mexico however it continued to create a strict separation between genders although both men and women were involved in the revolution women were involved by promoting political reform as well as enlisting in the military women who were involved in political reform would create reports that outlined the changes people wanted to see in their area that type of activism was seen inside and outside of the cities women not only took political action but also enlisted in the military and became teachers to contribute to the change that they wanted to see after the revolution women were seen as prizes by many men involved in the military being involved in the military gave men a greater sense of superiority over women which gave women the connotation of being a prize 201 that idea often lead to violence against women which meanwhile increased 201 after the revolution the ideas women contributed to the revolution were put on hold for many years women would often promote the ideas of establishing a greater justice system and creating ideals surrounded by democracy 201 the revolution caused many people to further reinstate the idea that women were meant to be taking care of the household women were also put in the lower part of the social class because of this idea 201 female soldiers during the revolution edit women who had been discarded by their families would often join the military being involved in the military would lead to scrutiny amongst some male participants 130 in order to avoid sexual abuse many women would make themselves appear more masculine 130 they would also dress more masculine in order to gain more experience with handling weapons and learning more about military jobs 130 maría de jesús gonzález edit an example of this is presented by maría de jesús gonzález who was a secret agent involved in carranza s army she would often present herself as a man in order to complete certain tasks assigned to her 130 after she completed these tasks she would return to her feminine appearance 130 rosa bobadilla edit rosa bodilla however maintained her feminine appearance throughout her military career she joined the zapata s military with her husband when he died she was given his title which became colonel rosa bobadila widow of casas 130 she gave orders to men while continuing to dress as a woman amelio robles edit main article amelio robles ávila after the revolution amelio robles continued to look like and identify as a male for the rest of his life 130 robles abandoned his home in order to join the zapata military throughout the war robles began to assume a more masculine identity after the war he did not return to his former appearance like other females had robles carried on with h...
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