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tion according to covenant theology jesus s sacrifice on the cross made possible the covenant of grace by which people who are selected by god could be saved puritans believed in unconditional election and irresistible grace which means that god s grace was given freely without condition to the elect and could not be refused 54 conversion edit covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal it held that god s predestination was not impersonal and mechanical but was a covenant of grace that one entered into by faith therefore being a christian could never be reduced to simple intellectual acknowledgment of the truth of christianity puritans agreed that the effectual call of each elect saint of god would always come as an individuated personal encounter with god s promises 55 the process by which the elect are brought from spiritual death to spiritual life regeneration was described as conversion 54 early on puritans did not consider a specific conversion experience normative or necessary but many gained assurance of salvation from such experiences over time however puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based upon their own experiences as well as those of their parishioners eventually puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one s election 56 the puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases it began with a preparatory phase that was designed to produce contrition for sin via introspection bible study and listening to preaching this was followed by humiliation when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness 54 it was after reaching this point the realization that salvation was possible only because of divine mercy that the person would experience justification when the righteousness of jesus is imputed to the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated for some puritans this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as being born again 57 confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection the historian perry miller wrote that the puritans liberated men from the treadmill of indulgences and penances but cast them on the iron couch of introspection 58 it was expected that conversion would be followed by sanctification which is described as the progressive growth in the saint s ability to better perceive and seek god s will and thus to lead a holy life 57 some puritans attempted to find assurance of their faith via keeping detailed records of their behavior and looking for the evidence of salvation in their lives puritan clergy wrote many spiritual guides to help their parishioners pursue personal piety and sanctification these included arthur dent s the plain man s pathway to heaven 1601 richard rogers s seven treatises 1603 henry scudder s christian s daily walk 1627 and richard sibbes s the bruised reed and smoking flax 1630 59 too much emphasis upon one s good works could be criticized for being too close to arminianism and too much emphasis upon subjective religious experience could be criticized as antinomianism many puritans relied upon both personal religious experience and self examination to assess their spiritual condition 59 puritanism s experiential piety would be inherited by the evangelical protestants of the 1700s 58 while evangelical doctrines about conversion were heavily influenced by puritan theology the puritans believed that assurance of one s salvation was rare late in life and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all people who were truly converted 60 worship and sacraments edit further information reformed baptismal theology while most puritans were members of the church of england they were critical of its worship practices in the 17th century sunday worship in the established church took the form of the morning prayer service in the book of common prayer this may include a sermon but holy communion or the lord s supper was only occasionally observed officially lay people were only required to receive communion three times a year but most people only received communion once a year at easter puritans were concerned about biblical errors and catholic remnants within the prayer book puritans objected to bowing at the name of jesus the requirement that priests wear the surplice and the use of written set prayers in place of improvised prayers 61 the sermon was central to puritan piety 62 it was not only a means of religious education puritans believed it was the most common way that god prepared a sinner s heart for conversion 63 on sundays puritan ministers often shortened the liturgy to allow more time for preaching 22 puritan churchgoers attended two sermons on sundays and as many weekday sermons and lectures they could find often traveling for miles 64 still many villagers could access sermons with ease due to the social patterns of new england puritan households were largely middle class and close in distance so there was not much of a distance between a church goers and their church 65 puritans were distinct for their adherence to sabbatarianism 66 puritans taught that there were two sacraments baptism and the lord s supper puritans agreed with the church s practice of infant baptism however the effect of baptism was disputed puritans objected to the prayer book s assertion of baptismal regeneration 67 in puritan theology infant baptism was understood in terms of covenant theology baptism replaced circumcision as a sign of the covenant and marked a child s admission into the visible church it could not be assumed that baptism produces regeneration the westminster confession states that the grace of baptism is only effective for those who are among the elect and its effects lie dormant until one experiences conversion later in life 68 puritans wanted to do away with godparents who made baptismal vows on behalf of infants and give that responsibility to the child s father puritans also objected to priests making the sign of the cross in baptism private baptisms were opposed because puritans believed that preaching should always accompany sacraments some puritan clergy even refused to baptise dying infants because that implied the sacrament contributed to salvation 69 puritans rejected both roman catholic transubstantiation and lutheran sacramental union teachings that christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the lord s supper instead puritans embraced the reformed doctrine of real spiritual presence believing that in the lord s supper the faithful receive christ spiritually in agreement with thomas cranmer the puritans stressed that christ comes down to us in the sacrament by his word and spirit offering himself as our spiritual food and drink 70 they criticised the prayer book service for being too similar to the catholic mass for example the requirement that people kneel to receive communion implied adoration of the eucharist a practice linked to transubstantiation puritans also criticised the church of england for allowing unrepentant sinners to receive communion puritans wanted better spiritual preparation such as clergy home visits and testing people on their knowledge of the catechism for communion and better church discipline to ensure that the unworthy were kept from the sacrament 69 puritans did not believe confirmation was necessary and thought candidates were poorly prepared since bishops did not have the time to examine them properly 71 72 the marriage service was criticised for using a wedding ring which implied that marriage was a sacrament and having the groom vow to his bride with my body i thee worship which puritans considered blasphemous in the funeral service the priest committed the body to the ground in sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal life through our lord jesus christ puritans objected to this phrase because they did not believe it was true for everyone they suggested it be rewritten as we commit his body etc believing a resurrection of the just and unjust some to joy and some to punishment 72 puritans eliminated choral music and musical instruments in their religious services because these were associated with roman catholicism however singing the psalms was considered appropriate see exclusive psalmody 73 church organs were commonly damaged or destroyed in the civil war period such as when an axe was taken to the organ of worcester cathedral in 1642 74 ecclesiology edit polemical popular print with a catalogue of sects 1647 while the puritans were united in their goal of furthering the english reformation they were always divided over issues of ecclesiology and church polity specifically questions that relate to the manner of organizing congregations how individual congregations should relate with one another and whether established national churches were scriptural 56 on these questions puritans divided between supporters of episcopal polity presbyterian polity and congregational polity the episcopalians known as the prelatical party were conservatives who supported retaining bishops if those leaders supported reform and agreed to share power with local churches 75 they also supported the idea of having a book of common prayer but they were against demanding strict conformity or having too much ceremony in addition these puritans called for a renewal of preaching pastoral care and christian discipline within the church of england 56 like the episcopalians the presbyterians agreed that there should be a national church but one that is structured upon the model of the church of scotland 75 they wanted to replace bishops with a system of elective and representative governing bodies of clergy and laity local sessions presbyteries synods and ultimately a national general assembly 56 during the interregnum the presbyterians had limited success at reorganizing the church of england the westminster assembly proposed the creation of a presbyterian system but the long parliament left implementation to local authorities as a result the church of england never developed a complete presbyterian hierarchy 76 congregationalists or independents believed in the autonomy of the local church which ideally would be a congregation of visible saints meaning those who had experienced conversion 77 members would be required to abide by a church covenant in which they pledged to join in the proper worship of god and to nourish each other in the search for further religious truth 75 such churches were regarded as complete within themselves with full authority to determine their own membership administer their own discipline and ordain their own ministers furthermore the sacraments would only be administered to those in the church covenant 78 most congregational puritans remained within the church of england hoping to reform it according to their own doctrines the new england congregationalists were also adamant that they were not separating from the church of england however some puritans equated the church of england with the roman catholic church and therefore considered it to be no christian church at all these groups such as the brownists would split from the established church and become known as separatists other separatists embraced more radical positions particularly on the subject of believer s baptism and became early baptists 78 church and state edit calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against god then they should be put down which could be hard to reconcile with the claims of divine right monarchy 79 puritan doctrines on church and state were also affected by their doctrines about church governance with people who favoured more centralised models tending to favour a closer relationship between the church and the state as well as other foreign models and their changing relationship with the english state the initial puritan vision on the proper relationship between church and state in england was of an established 80 reformed national church on the model of calvin s geneva who had been more careful than the previous reformers luther and zwingli to keep church structures and city authorities apart 81 geneva hosted many of the marian exiles of the 1550s who formed the core of the early puritans the fellow exile john knox had implemented a reformed national church in the neighbouring kingdom of scotland in the early 1560s despite the elizabethan settlement of 1559 creating a protestant church of england with many calvinist bishops the vestments controversy of the 1570s did show the limits of puritan influence upon the church many independents 82 did not support a compulsory national church but believed that civil government should enforce godly discipline by upholding the moral teachings of scripture 82 this included the puritan settlers in the new england colonies between 1620 and 1640 who established colony supported churches and governments which closely intertwined civil law with religious practice 83 and often the right to vote linked to church membership 84 however a minority of puritan separatists known as brownists from as early as the 1580s rejected the notion of a state church altogether and argued for congregations to remain independent from civil power 78 with another separatist roger williams in 1636 setting up providence plantations with a formal separation of church and state during the interregnum led by the independent oliver cromwell starting in 1649 the parish system was retained and ministers were financed via tithes but oversight was exercised by state appointed commissions such as the triers and ejectors allowing a range of protestant congregations to receive support while excluding catholics and radical sects 85 on 27 september 1650 the rump parliament of the commonwealth of england passed an act 86 repealing the act of supremacy act of uniformity and all laws making recusancy a crime there was no longer a legal requirement to attend the parish church on sundays for both protestants and catholics in 1653 responsibility for recording births marriages and deaths was transferred from the church to a civil registrar the result was that church baptisms and marriages became private acts not guarantees of legal rights which provided greater equality to dissenters 87 the 1653 instrument of government guaranteed that in matters of religion none shall be compelled by penalties or otherwise but endeavours be used to win them by sound doctrine and the example of a good conversation religious freedom was given to all who profess faith in god by jesus christ 88 however catholics and some others were excluded no one was executed for their religion during the protectorate 88 in london people who attended catholic mass or anglican holy communion were occasionally arrested but releas...
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