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0221015234052 https en wikipedia org wiki microcontroller microcontroller from wikipedia the free encyclopedia jump to navigation jump to search small computer on a single integrated circuit the die from an intel 8742 an 8 bit microcontroller that includes a cpu running at 12 mhz 128 bytes of ram 2048 bytes of eprom and i o in the same chip two atmega microcontrollers a microcontroller mcu for microcontroller unit is a small computer on a single vlsi integrated circuit ic chip a microcontroller contains one or more cpus processor cores along with memory and programmable input output peripherals program memory in the form of ferroelectric ram nor flash or otp rom is also often included on chip as well as a small amount of ram microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various discrete chips in modern terminology a microcontroller is similar to but less sophisticated than a system on a chip soc an soc may connect the external microcontroller chips as the motherboard components but an soc usually integrates the advanced peripherals like graphics processing unit gpu and wi fi interface controller as its internal microcontroller unit circuits microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices such as automobile engine control systems implantable medical devices remote controls office machines appliances power tools toys and other embedded systems by reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor memory and input output devices microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes mixed signal microcontrollers are common integrating analog components needed to control non digital electronic systems in the context of the internet of things microcontrollers are an economical and popular means of data collection sensing and actuating the physical world as edge devices some microcontrollers may use four bit words and operate at frequencies as low as 4 khz for low power consumption single digit milliwatts or microwatts they generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt power consumption while sleeping cpu clock and most peripherals off may be just nanowatts making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications other microcontrollers may serve performance critical roles where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor dsp with higher clock speeds and power consumption contents 1 history 1 1 background 1 2 development 1 3 volume and cost 1 4 smallest computer 2 embedded design 2 1 interrupts 2 2 programs 2 3 other microcontroller features 3 higher integration 4 programming environments 5 types 6 interrupt latency 7 memory technology 7 1 data 7 2 firmware 8 see also 9 references 10 external links history edit background edit further information mos integrated circuit and microprocessor chronology the first multi chip microprocessors the four phase systems al1 in 1969 and the garrett airesearch mp944 in 1970 were developed with multiple mos lsi chips the first single chip microprocessor was the intel 4004 released on a single mos lsi chip in 1971 it was developed by federico faggin using his silicon gate mos technology along with intel engineers marcian hoff and stan mazor and busicom engineer masatoshi shima 1 it was followed by the 4 bit intel 4040 the 8 bit intel 8008 and the 8 bit intel 8080 all of these processors required several external chips to implement a working system including memory and peripheral interface chips as a result the total system cost was several hundred 1970s us dollars making it impossible to economically computerize small appliances mos technology introduced its sub 100 microprocessors in 1975 the 6501 and 6502 their chief aim was to reduce this cost barrier but these microprocessors still required external support memory and peripheral chips which kept the total system cost in the hundreds of dollars development edit one book credits ti engineers gary boone and michael cochran with the successful creation of the first microcontroller in 1971 the result of their work was the tms 1000 which became commercially available in 1974 it combined read only memory read write memory processor and clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems 2 during the early to mid 1970s japanese electronics manufacturers began producing microcontrollers for automobiles including 4 bit mcus for in car entertainment automatic wipers electronic locks and dashboard and 8 bit mcus for engine control 3 partly in response to the existence of the single chip tms 1000 4 intel developed a computer system on a chip optimized for control applications the intel 8048 with commercial parts first shipping in 1977 4 it combined ram and rom on the same chip with a microprocessor among numerous applications this chip would eventually find its way into over one billion pc keyboards at that time intel s president luke j valenter stated that the microcontroller was one of the most successful products in the company s history and he expanded the microcontroller division s budget by over 25 most microcontrollers at this time had concurrent variants one had eprom program memory with a transparent quartz window in the lid of the package to allow it to be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light these erasable chips were often used for prototyping the other variant was either a mask programmed rom or a prom variant which was only programmable once for the latter sometimes the designation otp was used standing for one time programmable in an otp microcontroller the prom was usually of identical type as the eprom but the chip package had no quartz window because there was no way to expose the eprom to ultraviolet light it could not be erased because the erasable versions required ceramic packages with quartz windows they were significantly more expensive than the otp versions which could be made in lower cost opaque plastic packages for the erasable variants quartz was required instead of less expensive glass for its transparency to ultraviolet light to which glass is largely opaque but the main cost differentiator was the ceramic package itself in 1993 the introduction of eeprom memory allowed microcontrollers beginning with the microchip pic16c84 5 to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive package as required for eprom allowing both rapid prototyping and in system programming eeprom technology had been available prior to this time 6 but the earlier eeprom was more expensive and less durable making it unsuitable for low cost mass produced microcontrollers the same year atmel introduced the first microcontroller using flash memory a special type of eeprom 7 other companies rapidly followed suit with both memory types nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists with large online communities around certain processors volume and cost edit in 2002 about 55 of all cpus sold in the world were 8 bit microcontrollers and microprocessors 8 over two billion 8 bit microcontrollers were sold in 1997 9 and according to semico over four billion 8 bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006 10 more recently semico has claimed the mcu market grew 36 5 in 2010 and 12 in 2011 11 a typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general purpose microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers a typical mid range automobile has about 30 microcontrollers they can also be found in many electrical devices such as washing machines microwave ovens and telephones historically the 8 bit segment has dominated the mcu market 16 bit microcontrollers became the largest volume mcu category in 2011 overtaking 8 bit devices for the first time that year ic insights believes the makeup of the mcu market will undergo substantial changes in the next five years with 32 bit devices steadily grabbing a greater share of sales and unit volumes by 2017 32 bit mcus are expected to account for 55 of microcontroller sales in terms of unit volumes 32 bit mcus are expected account for 38 of microcontroller shipments in 2017 while 16 bit devices will represent 34 of the total and 4 8 bit designs are forecast to be 28 of units sold that year the 32 bit mcu market is expected to grow rapidly due to increasing demand for higher levels of precision in embedded processing systems and the growth in connectivity using the internet in the next few years complex 32 bit mcus are expected to account for over 25 of the processing power in vehicles ic insights mcu market on migration path to 32 bit and arm based devices 12 cost to manufacture can be under us 0 10 per unit cost has plummeted over time with the cheapest 8 bit microcontrollers being available for under us 0 03 in 2018 13 and some 32 bit microcontrollers around us 1 for similar quantities in 2012 following a global crisis a worst ever annual sales decline and recovery and average sales price year over year plunging 17 the biggest reduction since the 1980s the average price for a microcontroller was us 0 88 us 0 69 for 4 8 bit us 0 59 for 16 bit us 1 76 for 32 bit 12 in 2012 worldwide sales of 8 bit microcontrollers were around us 4 billion while 4 bit microcontrollers also saw significant sales 14 in 2015 8 bit microcontrollers could be bought for us 0 311 1 000 units 15 16 bit for us 0 385 1 000 units 16 and 32 bit for us 0 378 1 000 units but at us 0 35 for 5 000 17 in 2018 8 bit microcontrollers could be bought for us 0 03 13 16 bit for us 0 393 1 000 units but at us 0 563 for 100 or us 0 349 for full reel of 2 000 18 and 32 bit for us 0 503 1 000 units but at us 0 466 for 5 000 19 in 2018 the low priced microcontrollers above from 2015 were all more expensive with inflation calculated between 2018 and 2015 prices for those specific units at the 8 bit microcontroller could be bought for us 0 319 1 000 units or 2 6 higher 15 the 16 bit one for us 0 464 1 000 units or 21 higher 16 and the 32 bit one for us 0 503 1 000 units but at us 0 466 for 5 000 or 33 higher 17 a pic 18f8720 microcontroller in an 80 pin tqfp package smallest computer edit on 21 june 2018 the world s smallest computer was announced by the university of michigan the device is a 0 04 mm 3 16 nw wireless and batteryless sensor system with integrated cortex m0 processor and optical communication for cellular temperature measurement it measures just 0 3 mm to a side dwarfed by a grain of rice in addition to the ram and photovoltaics the new computing devices have processors and wireless transmitters and receivers because they are too small to have conventional radio antennae they receive and transmit data with visible light a base station provides light for power and programming and it receives the data 20 the device is 1 10 th the size of ibm s previously claimed world record sized computer from months back in march 2018 21 which is smaller than a grain of salt 22 has a million transistors costs less than 0 10 to manufacture and combined with blockchain technology is intended for logistics and crypto anchors digital fingerprint applications 23 embedded design edit a microcontroller can be considered a self contained system with a processor memory and peripherals and can be used as an embedded system 24 the majority of microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinery such as automobiles telephones appliances and peripherals for computer systems while some embedded systems are very sophisticated many have minimal requirements for memory and program length with no operating system and low software complexity typical input and output devices include switches relays solenoids led s small or custom liquid crystal displays radio frequency devices and sensors for data such as temperature humidity light level etc embedded systems usually have no keyboard screen disks printers or other recognizable i o devices of a personal computer and may lack human interaction devices of any kind interrupts edit microcontrollers must provide real time predictable though not necessarily fast response to events in the embedded system they are controlling when certain events occur an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to begin an interrupt service routine isr or interrupt handler which will perform any processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original instruction sequence possible interrupt sources are device dependent and often include events such as an internal timer overflow completing an analog to digital conversion a logic level change on an input such as from a button being pressed and data received on a communication link where power consumption is important as in battery devices interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required to do something by a peripheral event programs edit typically micro controller programs must fit in the available on chip memory since it would be costly to provide a system with external expandable memory compilers and assemblers are used to convert both high level and assembly language code into a compact machine code for storage in the micro controller s memory depending on the device the program memory may be permanent read only memory that can only be programmed at the factory or it may be field alterable flash or erasable read only memory manufacturers have often produced special versions of their micro controllers in order to help the hardware and software development of the target system originally these included eprom versions that have a window on the top of the device through which program memory can be erased by ultraviolet light ready for reprogramming after a programming burn and test cycle since 1998 eprom versions are rare and have been replaced by eeprom and flash which are easier to use can be erased electronically and cheaper to manufacture other versions may be available where the rom is accessed as an external device rather than as internal memory however these are becoming rare due to the widespread availability of cheap microcontroller programmers the use of field programmable devices on a micro controller may allow field update of the firmware or permit late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but not yet shipped programmable memory also reduces the lead time required for deployment of a new product where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required using parts programmed at the time of manufacture can be economical these mask programmed parts have the program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip at the same time a customized micro controller incorporates a block of digital logic that can be personalized for additional processing capability...
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