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nitarian ideas are often associated with christian democratic traditions with notable communitarian parties being the german cdu the dutch cda and the austrian övp terminology edit the philosophy of communitarianism originated in the 20th century but the term communitarian was coined in 1841 by john goodwyn barmby a leader of the british chartist movement who used it in referring to utopian socialists and other idealists who experimented with communal styles of life however it was not until the 1980s that the term communitarianism gained currency through association with the work of a small group of political philosophers their application of the label communitarian was controversial even among communitarians because in the west the term evokes associations with the ideologies of socialism and collectivism so public leaders and some of the academics who champion this school of thought usually avoid the term communitarian while still advocating and advancing the ideas of communitarianism the term is primarily used in two senses 2 attribution needed philosophical communitarianism considers classical liberalism to be ontologically and epistemologically incoherent and opposes it on those grounds unlike classical liberalism which construes communities as originating from the voluntary acts of pre community individuals it emphasizes the role of the community in defining and shaping individuals communitarians believe that the value of community is not sufficiently recognized in liberal theories of justice ideological communitarianism is characterized as a radical centrist ideology that is sometimes marked by socially conservative and economically interventionist policies this usage was coined recently when the term is capitalized communitarianism it usually refers to responsive communitarianism the movement of amitai etzioni and other philosophers czech and slovak philosophers like marek hrubec 3 lukáš perný 4 and luboš blaha 5 extend communitarianism to social projects tied to the values and significance of community or collectivism and to various types of communism and socialism christian scientific or utopian including historical roots of collectivist projects from plato through françois noël babeuf pierre joseph proudhon mikhail bakunin charles fourier robert owen to karl marx contemporary theoretical communitarianism michael j sandel michael walzer alasdair macintyre charles taylor originating in the 1980s pro liberal pro multicultural walzer taylor anti liberal pro national sandel macintyre the vision of practical self sustaining communities as described by thomas more utopia tommaso campanella civitas solis and practised by christian utopians jesuit reduction or utopian socialists like charles fourier list of fourierist associations in the united states robert owen list of owenite communities in the united states this line includes various forms of cooperatives self help institutions or communities hussite communities the diggers habans hutterites amish israeli kibbutz slavic community examples include the twelve tribes communities tamera portugal marinaleda spain the monastic state of mount athos 6 and the catholic worker movement origins edit while the term communitarian was coined only in the mid nineteenth century ideas that are communitarian in nature appeared much earlier they are found in some classical socialist doctrines e g writings about the early commune and about workers solidarity and further back in the new testament communitarianism has been traced back to early monasticism a number of early sociologists had strongly communitarian elements in their work such as ferdinand tönnies in his comparison of gemeinschaft oppressive but nurturing communities and gesellschaft liberating but impersonal societies and emile durkheim s concerns about the integrating role of social values and the relations between the individual and society both authors warned of the dangers of anomie normlessness and alienation in modern societies composed of atomized individuals who had gained their liberty but lost their social moorings modern sociologists saw the rise of mass society and the decline of communal bonds and respect for traditional values and authority in the united states as of the 1960s among those who raised these issues were robert nisbet twilight of authority 7 robert n bellah habits of the heart 8 and alan ehrenhalt the lost city the forgotten virtues of community in america 9 in his book bowling alone 2000 robert putnam documented the decline of social capital and stressed the importance of bridging social capital in which bonds of connectedness are formed across diverse social groups 10 in the twentieth century communitarianism also began to be formulated as a philosophy by dorothy day and the catholic worker movement in an early article the catholic worker clarified the dogma of the mystical body of christ as the basis for the movement s communitarianism 11 along similar lines communitarianism is also related to the personalist philosophy of emmanuel mounier responding to criticism that the term community is too vague or cannot be defined amitai etzioni one of the leaders of the american communitarian movement pointed out that communities can be defined with reasonable precision as having two characteristics first a web of affect laden relationships among a group of individuals relationships that often crisscross and reinforce one another as opposed to one on one or chain like individual relationships and second a measure of commitment to a set of shared values norms and meanings and a shared history and identity in short a particular culture 12 further author david e pearson argued that t o earn the appellation community it seems to me groups must be able to exert moral suasion and extract a measure of compliance from their members that is communities are necessarily indeed by definition coercive as well as moral threatening their members with the stick of sanctions if they stray offering them the carrot of certainty and stability if they don t 12 what is specifically meant by community in the context of communitarianism can vary greatly between authors and periods historically communities have been small and localized however as the reach of economic and technological forces extended more expansive communities became necessary to provide effective normative and political guidance to these forces prompting the rise of national communities in europe in the 17th century since the late 20th century there has been some growing recognition that the scope of even these communities is too limited as many challenges that people now face such as the threat of nuclear war and that of global environmental degradation and economic crises cannot be handled on a national basis this has led to the quest for more encompassing communities such as the european union whether truly supra national communities can be developed is far from clear more modern communities can take many different forms but are often limited in scope and reach for example members of one residential community are often also members of other communities such as work ethnic or religious ones as a result modern community members have multiple sources of attachments and if one threatens to become overwhelming individuals will often pull back and turn to another community for their attachments thus communitarianism is the reaction of some intellectuals to the problems of western society an attempt to find flexible forms of balance between the individual and society the autonomy of the individual and the interests of the community between the common good and freedom rights and duties 13 14 academic communitarianism edit whereas the classical liberalism of the enlightenment can be viewed as a reaction to centuries of authoritarianism oppressive government overbearing communities and rigid dogma modern communitarianism can be considered a reaction to excessive individualism understood as an undue emphasis on individual rights leading people to become selfish or egocentric 15 the close relation between the individual and the community was discussed on a theoretical level by michael sandel and charles taylor among other academic communitarians in their criticisms of philosophical liberalism especially the work of the american liberal theorist john rawls and that of the german enlightenment philosopher immanuel kant they argued that contemporary liberalism failed to account for the complex set of social relations that all individuals in the modern world are a part of liberalism is rooted in an untenable ontology that posits the existence of generic individuals and fails to account for social embeddedness to the contrary they argued there are no generic individuals but rather only germans or russians berliners or muscovites or members of some other particularistic community because individual identity is partly constructed by culture and social relations there is no coherent way of formulating individual rights or interests in abstraction from social contexts thus according to these communitarians there is no point in attempting to found a theory of justice on principles decided behind rawls veil of ignorance because individuals cannot exist in such an abstracted state even in principle 15 academic communitarians also contend that the nature of the political community is misunderstood by liberalism where liberal philosophers described the polity as a neutral framework of rules within which a multiplicity of commitments to moral values can coexist academic communitarians argue that such a thin conception of political community was both empirically misleading and normatively dangerous good societies these authors believe rest on much more than neutral rules and procedures they rely on a shared moral culture some academic communitarians argued even more strongly on behalf of such particularistic values suggesting that these were the only kind of values which matter and that it is a philosophical error to posit any truly universal moral values in addition to charles taylor and michael sandel other thinkers sometimes associated with academic communitarianism include michael walzer alasdair macintyre seyla benhabib shlomo avineri and patrick j deneen 15 social capital edit beginning in the late 20th century many authors began to observe a deterioration in the social networks of the united states in the book bowling alone robert putnam observed that nearly every form of civic organization has undergone drops in membership exemplified by the fact that while more people are bowling than in the 1950s there are fewer bowling leagues this results in a decline in social capital described by putnam as the collective value of all social networks and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other according to putnam and his followers social capital is a key component to building and maintaining democracy 10 communitarians seek to bolster social capital and the institutions of civil society the responsive communitarian platform described it thus 16 many social goals require partnerships between public and private groups though the government should not seek to replace local communities it may need to empower them by strategies of support including revenue sharing and technical assistance there is a great need for study and experimentation with creative use of the structures of civil society and public private cooperation especially where the delivery of health educational and social services are concerned positive rights edit important to some supporters of communitarian philosophy is the concept of positive rights which are rights or guarantees to certain things these may include state subsidized education state subsidized housing a safe and clean environment universal health care and even the right to a job with the concomitant obligation of the government or individuals to provide one to this end communitarians generally support social security programs public works programs and laws limiting such things as pollution a common objection is that by providing such rights communitarians violate the negative rights of the citizens rights to not have something done for you for example taxation to pay for such programs as described above dispossesses individuals of property proponents of positive rights by attributing the protection of negative rights to the society rather than the government respond that individuals would not have any rights in the absence of societies a central tenet of communitarianism and thus have a responsibility to give something back to it some have viewed this as a negation of natural rights however what is or is not a natural right is a source of contention in modern politics as well as historically for example whether or not universal health care private property or protection from polluters can be considered a birthright alternatively some agree that negative rights may be violated by a government action but argue that it is justifiable if the positive rights protected outweigh the negative rights lost still other communitarians question the very idea of natural rights and their place in a properly functioning community they claim that instead claims of rights and entitlements create a society unable to form cultural institutions and grounded social norms based on shared values rather the liberalist claim to individual rights leads to a morality centered on individual emotivism as ethical issues can no longer be solved by working through common understandings of the good the worry here is that not only is society individualized but so are moral claims 17 responsive communitarianism movement edit in the early 1990s in response to the perceived breakdown in the moral fabric of society engendered by excessive individualism amitai etzioni and william a galston began to organize working meetings to think through communitarian approaches to key societal issues this ultimately took the communitarian philosophy from a small academic group introduced it into public life and recast its philosophical content deeming themselves responsive communitarians in order to distinguish the movement from authoritarian communitarians etzioni and galston along with a varied group of academics including mary ann glendon thomas a spragens james fishkin benjamin barber hans joas philip selznick and robert n bellah among others drafted and published the responsive communitarian platform 18 based on their shared political principles and the ideas in it were eventually elaborated in academic and popular books and periodicals gaining thereby a measure of political currency in the west etzioni later formed the communitarian network to study and promote communitarian approaches to social issues and began publishing a quarterly journal the responsive community the main thesis of responsive communitarianism is that 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