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larly given the health effects of alcohol some rights in the charter however are not expressed with sufficient clarity to be regarded as directly binding in ams v union locale des syndicats cgt a french trade union claimed that the french labour code should not exclude casual workers from counting toward the right to set up a work council that an employing entity must inform and consult 154 they said this contravened the information and consultation of employees directive and also cfreu article 27 the court of justice agreed that the french labour code was incompatible with the directive but held that article 27 was expressed too generally to create direct rights on this view legislation was necessary to make abstract human rights principles concrete and legally enforceable beyond human rights the court of justice has recognised at least five further general principles of eu law the categories of general principles are not closed and may develop according to the social expectations of people living in europe legal certainty requires that judgments should be prospective open and clear decision making must be proportionate toward a legitimate aim when reviewing any discretionary act of a government or powerful body for example if a government wishes to change an employment law in a neutral way yet this could have disproportionate negative impact on women rather than men the government must show a legitimate aim and that its measures are 1 appropriate or suitable for achieving it 2 do no more than necessary and 3 reasonable in balancing the conflicting rights of different parties 155 equality is regarded as a fundamental principle this matters particularly for labour rights political rights and access to public or private services 156 right to a fair hearing professional privilege between lawyers and clients free movement and trade edit see also european single market world trade organization european free trade association and united nations the eu s internal market for trade exports like those passing through its largest port of rotterdam totals over 2840 billion 157 while the social market economy concept was only put into eu law by the 2007 treaty of lisbon 158 free movement and trade were central to european development since the treaty of rome in 1957 159 160 the standard theory of comparative advantage says two countries can both benefit from trade even if one of them has a less productive economy in all respects 161 like the north american free trade association or the world trade organization eu law breaks down barriers to trade by creating rights to free movement of goods services labour and capital this is meant to reduce consumer prices and raise living standards early theorists argued a free trade area would give way to a customs union which led to a common market then monetary union then union of monetary and fiscal policy and eventually a full union characteristic of a federal state 162 but in europe those stages were mixed and it is unclear whether the endgame should be the same as a state free trade without rights to ensure fair trade can benefit some groups within countries particularly big business more than others and disadvantages people who lack bargaining power in an expanding market particularly workers consumers small business developing industries and communities 163 for this reason the european has become not merely an economic union but creates binding social rights for people to ensure social progress and seek the constant improvement of the living and working conditions of their peoples 164 the treaty on the functioning of the european union articles 28 to 37 establish the principle of free movement of goods in the eu while articles 45 to 66 require free movement of persons services and capital these four freedoms were thought to be inhibited by physical barriers e g customs technical barriers e g differing laws on safety consumer or environmental standards and fiscal barriers e g different value added tax rates 165 free movement and trade is not meant to be a licence for unrestricted commercial profit 166 increasingly the treaties and the court of justice aim to ensure free trade serves higher values such as public health consumer protection labour rights fair competition and environmental improvement goods edit v t e free movement of goods tfeu arts 28 36 procureur du roi v dassonville 1974 case 8 74 commission v france 1997 c 265 95 schmidberger v austria 2003 c 112 00 rewe zentral ag v bmv für branntwein 1979 case 120 78 rau lebensmittelwerke v de smedt pvba 1983 case 261 81 commission v italy 2003 c 14 00 commission v italy 2009 c 110 05 keck and mithouard 1993 c 267 91 konsumentombudsmannen v de agostini 1997 c 34 95 konsumentombudsmannen v gourmet ab 2001 c 405 98 deutscher apothekerverband v 0800 docmorris 2003 c 322 01 commission v germany 1987 case 178 84 unfair commercial practices directive 2005 see eu law main article internal market european union free movement of goods within the european union is achieved by a customs union and the principle of non discrimination 167 168 the eu manages imports from non member states duties between member states are prohibited and imports circulate freely 169 in addition under the treaty on the functioning of the european union article 34 quantitative restrictions on imports and all measures having equivalent effect shall be prohibited between member states in procureur du roi v dassonville 170 the court of justice held that this rule meant all trading rules that are enacted by member states which could hinder trade directly or indirectly actually or potentially would be caught by article 34 171 this meant that a belgian law requiring scotch whisky imports to have a certificate of origin was unlikely to be lawful it discriminated against parallel importers like mr dassonville who could not get certificates from authorities in france where they bought the scotch this wide test 172 to determine what could potentially be an unlawful restriction on trade applies equally to actions by quasi government bodies such as the former buy irish company that had government appointees 173 it also means states can be responsible for private actors for instance in commission v france french farmer vigilantes were continually sabotaging shipments of spanish strawberries and even belgian tomato imports france was liable for these hindrances to trade because the authorities manifestly and persistently abstained from preventing the sabotage 174 generally speaking if a member state has laws or practices that directly discriminate against imports or exports under tfeu article 35 then it must be justified under article 36 the justifications include public morality policy or security protection of health and life of humans animals or plants national treasures of artistic historic or archaeological value and industrial and commercial property in addition although not clearly listed environmental protection can justify restrictions on trade as an overriding requirement derived from tfeu article 11 175 more generally it has been increasingly acknowledged that fundamental human rights should take priority over all trade rules so in schmidberger v austria 176 the court of justice held that austria did not infringe article 34 by failing to ban a protest that blocked heavy traffic passing over the a13 brenner autobahn en route to italy although many companies including mr schmidberger s german undertaking were prevented from trading the court of justice reasoned that freedom of association is one of the fundamental pillars of a democratic society against which the free movement of goods had to be balanced 177 and was probably subordinate if a member state does appeal to the article 36 justification the measures it takes have to be applied proportionately this means the rule must be pursue a legitimate aim and 1 be suitable to achieve the aim 2 be necessary so that a less restrictive measure could not achieve the same result and 3 be reasonable in balancing the interests of free trade with interests in article 36 178 in schmidberger v austria protests blocked trucks for goods through the austrian alps on the brenner autobahn the court of justice recognised fundamental rights take priority over free trade 179 often rules apply to all goods neutrally but may have a greater practical effect on imports than domestic products for such indirect discriminatory or indistinctly applicable measures the court of justice has developed more justifications either those in article 36 or additional mandatory or overriding requirements such as consumer protection improving labour standards 180 protecting the environment 181 press diversity 182 fairness in commerce 183 and more the categories are not closed 184 in the noted case rewe zentral ag v bundesmonopol für branntwein 185 the court of justice found that a german law requiring all spirits and liqueurs not just imported ones to have a minimum alcohol content of 25 per cent was contrary to tfeu article 34 because it had a greater negative effect on imports german liqueurs were over 25 per cent alcohol but cassis de dijon which rewe zentrale ag wished to import from france only had 15 to 20 per cent alcohol the court of justice rejected the german government s arguments that the measure proportionately protected public health under tfeu article 36 186 because stronger beverages were available and adequate labelling would be enough for consumers to understand what they bought 187 this rule primarily applies to requirements about a product s content or packaging in walter rau lebensmittelwerke v de smedt pvba 188 the court of justice found that a belgian law requiring all margarine to be in cube shaped packages infringed article 34 and was not justified by the pursuit of consumer protection the argument that belgians would believe it was butter if it was not cube shaped was disproportionate it would considerably exceed the requirements of the object in view and labelling would protect consumers just as effectively 189 in a 2003 case commission v italy 190 italian law required that cocoa products that included other vegetable fats could not be labelled as chocolate it had to be chocolate substitute all italian chocolate was made from cocoa butter alone but british danish and irish manufacturers used other vegetable fats they claimed the law infringed article 34 the court of justice held that a low content of vegetable fat did not justify a chocolate substitute label this was derogatory in the consumers eyes a neutral and objective statement was enough to protect consumers if member states place considerable obstacles on the use of a product this can also infringe article 34 so in a 2009 case commission v italy the court of justice held that an italian law prohibiting motorcycles or mopeds pulling trailers infringed article 34 191 again the law applied neutrally to everyone but disproportionately affected importers because italian companies did not make trailers this was not a product requirement but the court reasoned that the prohibition would deter people from buying it it would have a considerable influence on the behaviour of consumers that affects the access of that product to the market 192 it would require justification under article 36 or as a mandatory requirement in 2002 rem koolhaas proposed barcode flag of europe caused uproar as it symbolised the eu becoming no more than a market economy for endless competitive consumption devoid of social values and rights it was not adopted in contrast to product requirements or other laws that hinder market access the court of justice developed a presumption that selling arrangements would be presumed to not fall into tfeu article 34 if they applied equally to all sellers and affected them in the same manner in fact in keck and mithouard 193 two importers claimed that their prosecution under a french competition law which prevented them selling picon beer under wholesale price was unlawful the aim of the law was to prevent cut throat competition not to hinder trade 194 the court of justice held as in law and in fact it was an equally applicable selling arrangement not something that alters a product s content 195 it was outside the scope of article 34 and so did not need to be justified selling arrangements can be held to have an unequal effect in fact particularly where traders from another member state are seeking to break into the market but there are restrictions on advertising and marketing in konsumentombudsmannen v de agostini 196 the court of justice reviewed swedish bans on advertising to children under age 12 and misleading commercials for skin care products while the bans have remained justifiable under article 36 or as a mandatory requirement the court emphasised that complete marketing bans could be disproportionate if advertising were the only effective form of promotion enabling a trader to penetrate the market in konsumentombudsmannen v gourmet ab 197 the court suggested that a total ban for advertising alcohol on the radio tv and in magazines could fall within article 34 where advertising was the only way for sellers to overcome consumers traditional social practices and to local habits and customs to buy their products but again the national courts would decide whether it was justified under article 36 to protect public health under the unfair commercial practices directive the eu harmonised restrictions on restrictions on marketing and advertising to forbid conduct that distorts average consumer behaviour is misleading or aggressive and sets out a list of examples that count as unfair 198 increasingly states have to give mutual recognition to each other s standards of regulation while the eu has attempted to harmonise minimum ideals of best practice the attempt to raise standards is hoped to avoid a regulatory race to the bottom while allowing consumers access to goods from around the continent workers edit v t e free movement of workers tfeu arts 45 48 free movement of workers regulation 492 2011 lawrie blum v land baden württemberg 1986 case 66 85 steymann v staatssecretaris van justitie 1988 case 196 87 trojani v centre public d aide sociale 2004 c 456 02 belgian football association v bosman 1995 c 415 93 angonese v cassa di risparmio di bolzano spa 2000 c 281 98 finanzamt köln altstadt v schumacker 1995 c 279 93 weigel v finanzlandesdirektion für vorarlberg 2004 c 387 01 hendrix v employee insurance institute 2007 c 287 05 geven v land nordrhein westfalen 2007 c 213 05 free movement of citizens directive 2004 38 ec gravier v city of liege 1985 case 293 83 metock v minister for justice 2008 c 127 08 vander elst v office des migrations internationales 1994 c 43 93 see eu law and free movement main article freedom of movement for workers since its foundation the treaties sought to enable people to pursue their life goals in any country through free movement 199 200 r...
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