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computer was a tide predicting machine invented by sir william thomson later to become lord kelvin in 1872 the differential analyser a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel and disc mechanisms was conceptualized in 1876 by james thomson the elder brother of the more famous sir william thomson 16 the art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer built by h l hazen and vannevar bush at mit starting in 1927 this built on the mechanical integrators of james thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by h w nieman a dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious by the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications such as education slide rule and aircraft control systems digital computers electromechanical by 1938 the united states navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine this was the torpedo data computer which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target during world war ii similar devices were developed in other countries as well replica of konrad zuse s z3 the first fully automatic digital electromechanical computer early digital computers were electromechanical electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation these devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all electric computers originally using vacuum tubes the z2 created by german engineer konrad zuse in 1939 was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer 21 in 1941 zuse followed his earlier machine up with the z3 the world s first working electromechanical programmable fully automatic digital computer 22 23 the z3 was built with 2000 relays implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5 10 hz 24 program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard it was quite similar to modern machines in some respects pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers rather than the harder to implement decimal system used in charles babbage s earlier design using a binary system meant that zuse s machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable given the technologies available at that time 25 the z3 was not itself a universal computer but could be extended to be turing complete 26 27 zuse s next computer the z4 became the world s first commercial computer after initial delay due to the second world war it was completed in 1950 and delivered to the eth zurich 28 the computer was manufactured by zuse s own company zuse kg de which was founded in 1941 as the first company with the sole purpose of developing computers 28 vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog the engineer tommy flowers working at the post office research station in london in the 1930s began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system using thousands of vacuum tubes 20 in the us john vincent atanasoff and clifford e berry of iowa state university developed and tested the atanasoff berry computer abc in 1942 29 the first automatic electronic digital computer 30 this design was also all electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory 31 colossus the first electronic digital programmable computing device was used to break german ciphers during world war ii it is seen here in use at bletchley park in 1943 during world war ii the british code breakers at bletchley park achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted german military communications the german encryption machine enigma was first attacked with the help of the electro mechanical bombes which were often run by women 32 33 to crack the more sophisticated german lorenz sz 40 42 machine used for high level army communications max newman and his colleagues commissioned flowers to build the colossus 31 he spent eleven months from early february 1943 designing and building the first colossus 34 after a functional test in december 1943 colossus was shipped to bletchley park where it was delivered on 18 january 1944 35 and attacked its first message on 5 february 31 colossus was the world s first electronic digital programmable computer 20 it used a large number of valves vacuum tubes it had paper tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data but it was not turing complete nine mk ii colossi were built the mk i was converted to a mk ii making ten machines in total colossus mark i contained 1 500 thermionic valves tubes but mark ii with 2 400 valves was both five times faster and simpler to operate than mark i greatly speeding the decoding process 36 37 eniac was the first electronic turing complete device and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the united states army the eniac 38 electronic numerical integrator and computer was the first electronic programmable computer built in the u s although the eniac was similar to the colossus it was much faster more flexible and it was turing complete like the colossus a program on the eniac was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later once a program was written it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches the programmers of the eniac were six women often known collectively as the eniac girls 39 40 it combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems it could add or subtract 5000 times a second a thousand times faster than any other machine it also had modules to multiply divide and square root high speed memory was limited to 20 words about 80 bytes built under the direction of john mauchly and j presper eckert at the university of pennsylvania eniac s development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945 the machine was huge weighing 30 tons using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18 000 vacuum tubes 1 500 relays and hundreds of thousands of resistors capacitors and inductors 41 modern computers concept of modern computer the principle of the modern computer was proposed by alan turing in his seminal 1936 paper 42 on computable numbers turing proposed a simple device that he called universal computing machine and that is now known as a universal turing machine he proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions program stored on tape allowing the machine to be programmable the fundamental concept of turing s design is the stored program where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory von neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper 43 turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores modern computers are said to be turing complete which is to say they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal turing machine stored programs main article stored program computer a section of the reconstructed manchester baby the first electronic stored program computer early computing machines had fixed programs changing its function required the re wiring and re structuring of the machine 31 with the proposal of the stored program computer this changed a stored program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions a program that details the computation the theoretical basis for the stored program computer was laid out by alan turing in his 1936 paper in 1945 turing joined the national physical laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored program digital computer his 1945 report proposed electronic calculator was the first specification for such a device john von neumann at the university of pennsylvania also circulated his first draft of a report on the edvac in 1945 20 the manchester baby was the world s first stored program computer it was built at the university of manchester in england by frederic c williams tom kilburn and geoff tootill and ran its first program on 21 june 1948 44 it was designed as a testbed for the williams tube the first random access digital storage device 45 although the computer was described as small and primitive by a 1998 retrospective it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer 46 as soon as the baby had demonstrated the feasibility of its design a project began at the university to develop it into a practically useful computer the manchester mark 1 the mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the ferranti mark 1 the world s first commercially available general purpose computer 47 built by ferranti it was delivered to the university of manchester in february 1951 at least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957 one of them to shell labs in amsterdam 48 in october 1947 the directors of british catering company j lyons company decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers lyons s leo i computer modelled closely on the cambridge edsac of 1949 became operational in april 1951 49 and ran the world s first routine office computer job grace hopper was the first to develop a compiler for a programming language 2 transistors main articles transistor and history of the transistor further information transistor computer and mosfet bipolar junction transistor bjt the concept of a field effect transistor was proposed by julius edgar lilienfeld in 1925 john bardeen and walter brattain while working under william shockley at bell labs built the first working transistor the point contact transistor in 1947 which was followed by shockley s bipolar junction transistor in 1948 50 51 from 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs giving rise to the second generation of computers compared to vacuum tubes transistors have many advantages they are smaller and require less power than vacuum tubes so give off less heat junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer indefinite service life transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space however early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass production basis which limited them to a number of specialised applications 52 at the university of manchester a team under the leadership of tom kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves 53 their first transistorised computer and the first in the world was operational by 1953 and a second version was completed there in april 1955 however the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 khz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory so it was not the first completely transistorized computer that distinction goes to the harwell cadet of 1955 54 built by the electronics division of the atomic energy research establishment at harwell 54 55 mosfet mos transistor showing gate g body b source s and drain d terminals the gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer pink the metal oxide silicon field effect transistor mosfet also known as the mos transistor was invented by mohamed m atalla and dawon kahng at bell labs in 1959 56 it was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass produced for a wide range of uses 52 with its high scalability 57 and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors 58 the mosfet made it possible to build high density integrated circuits 59 60 in addition to data processing it also enabled the practical use of mos transistors as memory cell storage elements leading to the development of mos semiconductor memory which replaced earlier magnetic core memory in computers the mosfet led to the microcomputer revolution 61 and became the driving force behind the computer revolution 62 63 the mosfet is the most widely used transistor in computers 64 65 and is the fundamental building block of digital electronics 66 integrated circuits main articles integrated circuit and invention of the integrated circuit further information planar process and microprocessor die photograph of a mos 6502 an early 1970s microprocessor integrating 3500 transistors on a single chip integrated circuits are typically packaged in plastic metal or ceramic cases to protect the ic from damage and for ease of assembly the next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit ic the idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the royal radar establishment of the ministry of defence geoffrey w a dummer dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the symposium on progress in quality electronic components in washington d c on 7 may 1952 67 the first working ics were invented by jack kilby at texas instruments and robert noyce at fairchild semiconductor 68 kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in july 1958 successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 september 1958 69 in his patent application of 6 february 1959 kilby described his new device as a body of semiconductor material wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated 70 71 however kilby s invention was a hybrid integrated circuit hybrid ic rather than a monolithic integrated circuit ic chip 72 kilby s ic had external wire connections which made it difficult to mass produce 73 noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than kilby 74 noyce s invention was the first true monolithic ic chip 75 73 his chip solved many practical problems that kilby s had not produced at fairchild semiconductor it was made of silicon whereas kilby s chip was made of germanium noyce s monolithic ic was fabricated using the planar process developed by his colleague jean hoerni in early 1959 in turn the planar process was based on mohamed m atalla s work on 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