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explicitly proclaimed as the lord which is one of the primary reasons for the harsh persecutions of christians during the early centuries of the roman empire the religion was a direct threat to the ideology of the regime although christianity eventually became the state religion of the roman empire in the 4th century the imperial ideology was far from unrecognizable after its adoption like the previous imperial cult christianity now held the empire together and though the emperors were no longer recognized as gods the emperors had successfully established themselves as the rulers of the christian church in the place of christ still uniting temporal and spiritual authority 7 in the byzantine empire the authority of the emperor as both the rightful temporal ruler of the roman empire and the head of christianity remained unquestioned until the fall of the empire in the 15th century 8 the byzantines firmly believed that their emperor was god s appointed ruler and his viceroy on earth illustrated in their title as deo coronatus crowned by god that he was the roman emperor basileus ton rhomaion and as such the highest authority in the world due to his universal and exclusive emperorship the emperor was an absolute ruler dependent on no one when exercising his power illustrated in their title as autokrator or the latin moderator 9 the emperor was adorned with an aura of holiness and was theoretically not accountable to anyone but god himself the emperor s power as god s viceroy on earth was also theoretically unlimited in essence byzantine imperial ideology was simply a christianization of the old roman imperial ideology which had also been universal and absolutist 10 as the western roman empire collapsed and subsequent byzantine attempts to retain the west crumbled the church took the place of the empire in the west and by the time western europe emerged from the chaos endured during the 5th to 7th centuries the pope was the chief religious authority and the franks were the chief temporal authority charlemagne s coronation as roman emperor expressed an idea different from the absolutist ideas of the emperors in the byzantine empire though the eastern emperor retained control of both the temporal empire and the spiritual church the rise of a new empire in the west was a collaborative effort charlemagne s temporal power had been won through his wars but he had received the imperial crown from the pope both the emperor and the pope had claims to ultimate authority in western europe the popes as the successors of saint peter and the emperors as divinely appointed protectors of the church and though they recognized the authority of each other their dual rule would give rise to many controversies such as the investiture controversy and the rise and fall of several antipopes 8 holy roman byzantine dispute edit carolingian period edit imperial ideology edit denarius of frankish king charlemagne who was crowned as roman emperor karolus imperator augustus in the year 800 by pope leo iii due to and in opposition to the roman empire in the east being ruled by irene a woman his coronation was strongly opposed by the eastern empire though the inhabitants of the byzantine empire itself never stopped referring to themselves as romans rhomaioi sources from western europe from the coronation of charlemagne and onwards denied the roman legacy of the eastern empire by referring to its inhabitants as greeks the idea behind this renaming was that charlemagne s coronation did not represent a division divisio imperii of the roman empire into west and east nor a restoration renovatio imperii of the old western roman empire rather charlemagne s coronation was the transfer translatio imperii of the imperium romanum from the greeks in the east to the franks in the west 11 to contemporary sources in western europe such as the annals of lorsch charlemagne s key legitimizing factor as emperor other than papal approval was the territories which he controlled as he controlled formerly roman lands in gaul germany and italy including rome itself and acted as a true emperor in these lands he deserved to be called emperor while the eastern emperor was seen as having abandoned these traditional provinces 12 13 this argument from antiquity or tradition had more longevity than alcuin of york s argument that the roman emperor could not be a woman and therefore was automatically vacant upon irene of athens usurpation in 797 since irene herself was deposed in 802 and followed by male rulers for the rest of charlemagne s reign 13 although crowned as an explicit refusal of the eastern emperor s claim to universal rule charlemagne himself does not appear to have been interested in open confrontation with the byzantine empire or its rulers and seems to have desired to eliminate the appearance of division diplomatically 12 when charlemagne wrote to constantinople in 813 charlemagne titled himself as the emperor and augustus and also king of the franks and of the lombards identifying the imperial title with his previous royal titles in regards to the franks and lombards rather than to the romans as such his imperial title could be interpreted by the byzantines as stemming from the fact that he was the king of more than one kingdom equating the title of emperor with that of king of kings rather than signifying a usurpation of byzantine power 12 nevertheless charlemagne s coronation was in actuality an active challenge to byzantine imperial legitimacy and was regarded as such by the pope 14 on his coins the name and title used by charlemagne is karolus imperator augustus and in his own documents he used imperator augustus romanum gubernans imperium august emperor governing the roman empire and serenissimus augustus a deo coronatus magnus pacificus imperator romanorum gubernans imperium most serene augustus crowned by god great peaceful emperor governing the empire of the romans 15 the identification as an emperor governing the roman empire rather than a roman emperor could be seen as an attempt at avoiding the dispute and issue over who was the true emperor and attempting to keep the perceived unity of the empire intact 12 the carolingian empire green and the byzantine empire purple in 814 ad in response to the frankish adoption of the imperial title the byzantine emperors which had previously simply used emperor as a title adopted the full title of emperor of the romans to make their supremacy clear 15 to the byzantines charlemagne s coronation was a rejection of their perceived order of the world and an act of usurpation although emperor michael i r 811 813 eventually relented and recognized charlemagne as an emperor and a spiritual brother of the eastern emperor charlemagne was not recognized as the roman emperor and his imperium was seen as limited to his actual domains as such not universal and not as something that would outlive him with his successors being referred to as kings rather than emperors in byzantine sources 16 following charlemagne s coronation the two empires engaged in diplomacy with each other the exact terms discussed are unknown and negotiations were slow but it seems that charlemagne proposed in 802 that he and irene would marry and unite their empires sending ambassadors to constantinople 17 as such the empire could have reunited without arguments as to which ruler was the legitimate one 12 however as reported by theophanes the confessor the scheme was frustrated by aetios eunuch and favorite of irene who was attempting to usurp her on behalf of his brother leo even though irene herself approved of the marriage proposal the general logothete finance minister nikephoros along with other courtiers disgruntled with irene s financial policy and fearful of the implications of political union with the franks through the proposed marriage overthrew irene and exiled her on 31 october 802 while the frankish and papal ambassadors were still in the city damaging frankish byzantine relations once again 18 louis ii and basil i edit emperor louis ii s pictured 871 letter to byzantine emperor basil i showcased that the two emperors held significantly different ideas of what it meant to be roman one of the primary resources in regards to the problem of two emperors in the carolingian period is a letter by emperor louis ii louis ii was the fourth emperor of the carolingian empire though his domain was confined to northern italy as the rest of the empire had fractured into several different kingdoms though these still acknowledged louis as the emperor his letter was a reply to a provocative letter by byzantine emperor basil i though basil s letter is lost its contents can be ascertained from the known geopolitical situation at the time and louis s reply and probably related to the ongoing co operation between the two empires against the muslims the focal point of basil s letter was his refusal to recognize louis ii as a roman emperor 19 basil appears to have based his refusal on two main points first of all the title of roman emperor was not hereditary the byzantines still considered it to formally be a republican office although also tied intimately with religion and second of all it was not considered appropriate for someone of a gens e g an ethnicity to hold the title the franks and other groups throughout europe were seen as different gentes but to basil and the rest of the byzantines roman was not a gens romans were defined chiefly by their lack of a gens and as such louis was not roman and thus not a roman emperor there was only one roman emperor basil himself and though basil considered that louis could be an emperor of the franks he appears to have questioned this as well seeing as only the ruler of the romans was to be titled basileus emperor 19 as illustrated by louis s letter the western idea of ethnicity was different from the byzantine idea everyone belonged to some form of ethnicity louis considered the gens romana roman people to be the people who lived in the city of rome which he saw as having been deserted by the byzantine empire all gentes could be ruled by a basileus in louis s mind and as he pointed out the title which had originally simply meant king had been applied to other rulers in the past notably persian rulers furthermore louis disagreed with the notion that someone of a gens could not become the roman emperor he considered the gentes of hispania the theodosian dynasty isauria the isaurian dynasty and khazaria leo iv as all having provided emperors though the byzantines themselves would have seen all of these as romans and not as peoples of gentes the views expressed by the two emperors in regards to ethnicity are somewhat paradoxical basil defined the roman empire in ethnic terms defining it as explicitly against ethnicity despite not considering the romans as an ethnicity and louis did not define the roman empire in ethnic terms defining it as an empire of god the creator of all ethnicities despite considering the romans as an ethnic people 19 coin of byzantine emperor basil i which titles him as basilios augustus louis also derived legitimacy from religion he argued that as the pope of rome who actually controlled the city had rejected the religious leanings of the byzantines as heretical instead favoring the franks and also because the he had also crowned him emperor louis was the legitimate roman emperor the idea was that it was god himself acting through his vicar the pope who had granted the church people and city of rome to him to govern and protect 19 louis s letter details that if he was not the emperor of the romans then he could not be the emperor of the franks either as it was the roman people themselves who had accorded his ancestors with the imperial title in contrast to the papal affirmation of his imperial lineage louis chastized the eastern empire for its emperors mostly only being affirmed by their senate and sometimes lacking even that with some emperors having been proclaimed by the army or worse women probably a reference to irene louis probably overlooked that affirmation by the army was the original ancient source for the title of imperator before it came to mean the ruler of the roman empire 20 though it would have been possible for either side of the dispute to concede to the obvious truth that there were now two empires and two emperors this would have denied the understood nature of what the empire was and meant its unity 12 louis s letter does offer some evidence that he might have recognized the political situation as such louis is referred to as the august emperor of the romans and basil is referred to as the very glorious and pious emperor of new rome 21 and he suggests that the indivisible empire is the empire of god and that god has not granted this church to be steered either by me or you alone but so that we should be bound to each other with such love that we cannot be divided but should seem to exist as one 19 these references are more likely to mean that louis still considered there to be a single empire but with two imperial claimants in effect an emperor and an anti emperor neither side in the dispute would have been willing to reject the idea of the single empire louis referring to the byzantine emperor as an emperor in the letter may simply be a courtesy rather than an implication that he truly accepted his imperial rule 22 louis s letter mentions that the byzantines abandoned rome the seat of empire and lost the roman way of life and the latin language in his view that the empire was ruled from constantinople did not represent it surviving but rather that it had fled from its responsibilities 21 although he would have had to approve its contents louis probably did not write his letter himself and it was probably instead written by the prominent cleric anastasius bibliothecarius anastasius was not a frank but a citizen of the city of rome in louis s view an ethnic roman as such prominent figures in rome itself would have shared louis s views illustrating that by his time the byzantine empire and the city of rome had drifted very far apart 19 following the death of louis in 875 emperors continued to be crowned in the west for a few decades but their reigns were often brief and problematic and they only held limited power and as such the problem of two emperors ceased being a major issue to the byzantines for a time 23 ottonian period edit emperor nikephoros ii phokas pictured was outraged at the papal coronation of otto i and vowed to reconquer italy and force the pope to submit to him the problem of two emperors returned when pope john xii crowned the king of germany otto i as emperor of the romans in 962 almost 40 years after the death of the previous papally crowned emperor berengar otto s repeated territorial claims to all of italy and sicily as he had also been proclaimed as the king of italy brought him into conflict with the byzantine empire 24 the byzantine emperor at the time rom...
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