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victorian era main article victorian literature sage writing edit main article sage writing thomas carlyle by julia margaret cameron 1867 during these years sage writing developed as a new literary genre in which the author sought to express notions about the world man s situation in it and how he should live 127 john holloway identified benjamin disraeli george eliot john henry newman and thomas hardy as writers of this type foremost among them was thomas carlyle a scottish essayist historian and philosopher who became the undoubted head of english letters in the 19th century 128 129 known as the sage of chelsea the highly prolific author criticized the industrial revolution 130 preached hero worship 131 and rebuked political economy 132 in a series of works written in carlylese the name given to his unique style 133 his influence on victorian literature was nearly universal in 1855 eliot wrote that there is hardly a superior or active mind of this generation that has not been modified by carlyle s writings with the effect that if his books were all burnt as the grandest of suttees on his funeral pile it would be only like cutting down an oak after its acorns have sown a forest 134 john ruskin was an anglo scottish art critic and philosopher who wrote in a similar vein regarding carlyle as his master 135 the early part of his career was devoted to aesthetics championing turner and the pre raphaelite brotherhood 136 he later turned to ethics expounding his ideas on educational reform and political economy which were to have great influence on practices in england and throughout the world 137 138 matthew arnold was an english poet and critic who is also regarded as a sage writer famous for his criticism of philistinism victorian novel edit see also english novel victorian novel and novel the victorian period 1837 1901 it was in the victorian era 1837 1901 that the novel became the leading literary genre in english 139 women played an important part in this rising popularity both as authors and as readers 140 and monthly serialising of fiction also encouraged this surge in popularity further upheavals which followed the reform act 1832 141 this was in many ways a reaction to rapid industrialization and the social political and economic issues associated with it and was a means of commenting on abuses of government and industry and the suffering of the poor who were not profiting from england s economic prosperity 142 significant early examples of this genre include sybil or the two nations 1845 by benjamin disraeli and charles kingsley s alton locke 1849 charles dickens charles dickens emerged on the literary scene in the late 1830s and soon became probably the most famous novelist in the history of english literature dickens fiercely satirised various aspects of society including the workhouse in oliver twist and the failures of the legal system in bleak house 143 an early rival to dickens was william makepeace thackeray who during the victorian period ranked second only to him but he is now known almost exclusively for vanity fair 1847 the brontë sisters emily charlotte and anne were other significant novelists in the 1840s and 1850s 144 jane eyre 1847 charlotte brontë s most famous work was the first of the sisters novels to achieve success emily brontë s novel was wuthering heights and according to juliet gardiner the vivid sexual passion and power of its language and imagery impressed bewildered and appalled reviewers 145 and led the victorian public and many early reviewers to think that it had been written by a man 146 the tenant of wildfell hall 1848 by anne brontë is now considered to be one of the first feminist novels 147 elizabeth gaskell was also a successful writer and her north and south contrasts the lifestyle in the industrial north of england with the wealthier south 148 anthony trollope was one of the most successful prolific and respected english novelists of the victorian era trollope s novels portray the lives of the landowning and professional classes of early victorian england 149 george eliot pen name of mary ann evans was a major novelist of the mid victorian period her works especially middlemarch 1871 1872 are important examples of literary realism and are admired for their combination of high victorian literary detail with an intellectual breadth that removes them from the narrow geographic confines they often depict 150 george meredith is best remembered for his novels the ordeal of richard feverel 1859 and the egoist 1879 his reputation stood very high well into the 20th century but then seriously declined 151 an interest in rural matters and the changing social and economic situation of the countryside is seen in the novels of thomas hardy 1840 1928 including the mayor of casterbridge 1886 and tess of the d urbervilles 1891 hardy is a victorian realist in the tradition of george eliot 152 and like charles dickens he was also highly critical of much in victorian society another significant late 19th century novelist is george gissing 1857 1903 who published 23 novels between 1880 and 1903 his best known novel is new grub street 1891 although pre dated by john ruskin s the king of the golden river in 1841 the history of the modern fantasy genre is generally said to begin with george macdonald the influential author of the princess and the goblin and phantastes 1858 153 william morris wrote a series of romances in the 1880s and 1890s which are regarded as the first works of high fantasy 154 rudyard kipling wilkie collins epistolary novel the moonstone 1868 is generally considered the first detective novel in the english language 155 robert louis stevenson was an important scottish writer at the end of the nineteenth century author of strange case of dr jekyll and mr hyde 1886 and the historical novel kidnapped 1886 rudyard kipling was a highly versatile writer of novels short stories and poems who gained popularity at the end of the nineteenth century for his stories and poems about life in british india published in collections such as plain tales from the hills the phantom rickshaw and other tales soldiers three and barrack room ballads h g wells s writing career began in the 1890s with science fiction novels like the time machine 1895 and the war of the worlds 1898 which describes an invasion of late victorian england by martians and wells is seen along with frenchman jules verne as a major figure in the development of the science fiction genre he also wrote realistic fiction about the lower middle class in novels like kipps 1905 american novel from romanticism to realism edit main article american literature see also the discussion of american literature under romanticism above by the mid 19th century the pre eminence of literature from the british isles began to be challenged by writers from the former american colonies a major influence on american writers at this time was romanticism which gave rise to new england transcendentalism and the publication of ralph waldo emerson s 1836 essay nature is usually considered the watershed moment at which transcendentalism became a major cultural movement 124 156 thomas carlyle had a strong influence on emerson transcendentalism 157 and american writers generally particularly his novel sartor resartus of which the impact upon american literature has been described as so vast so pervasive that it is difficult to overstate 158 nathaniel hawthorne the romantic american novel developed fully with nathaniel hawthorne s the scarlet letter 1850 a stark drama of a woman cast out of her community for committing adultery hawthorne s fiction had a profound impact on his friend herman melville in moby dick 1851 an adventurous whaling voyage becomes the vehicle for examining such themes as obsession the nature of evil and human struggle against the elements by the 1880s however psychological and social realism were competing with romanticism in the novel american realist fiction has its beginnings in the 1870s with the works of mark twain william dean howells and henry james mark twain the pen name used by samuel langhorne clemens was the first major american writer to be born away from the east coast in the border state of missouri his regional masterpieces were the novels adventures of tom sawyer 1876 and adventures of huckleberry finn 1884 twain s style changed the way americans write their language his characters speak like real people and sound distinctively american using local dialects newly invented words and regional accents henry james was a major american novelist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries although born in new york city he spent most of his adult years in england many of his novels center on americans who live in or travel to europe james confronted the old world new world dilemma by writing directly about it his works include the portrait of a lady 1881 the bostonians 1886 the princess casamassima 1886 159 genre fiction edit see also genre fiction 19th century british and irish genre fiction sir arthur conan doyle wrote 56 short stories and four novels featuring sherlock holmes the premier ghost story writer of the 19th century was sheridan le fanu his works include the macabre mystery novel uncle silas 1865 and his gothic novella carmilla 1872 tells the story of a young woman s susceptibility to the attentions of a female vampire bram stoker s horror story dracula 1897 belongs to a number of literary genres including vampire literature horror fiction gothic novel and invasion literature 160 arthur conan doyle s sherlock holmes is a brilliant london based consulting detective famous for his intellectual prowess conan doyle wrote four novels and 56 short stories featuring holmes which were published between 1887 and 1927 all but four holmes stories are narrated by holmes friend assistant and biographer dr watson the lost world literary genre was inspired by real stories of archaeological discoveries by imperial adventurers h rider haggard wrote one of the earliest examples king solomon s mines in 1885 contemporary european politics and diplomatic maneuverings informed anthony hope s ruritanian adventure novel the prisoner of zenda 1894 children s literature edit see also children s literature golden age literature for children developed as a separate genre some works become internationally known such as those of lewis carroll alice s adventures in wonderland 1865 and its sequel through the looking glass robert louis stevenson s treasure island 1883 is the classic pirate adventure rudyard kipling wrote stories for children inspired by his childhood in india and other topics including classics like the jungle book the second jungle book kim and captains courageous at the end of the victorian era and leading into the edwardian era beatrix potter was an author and illustrator best known for her children s books which featured animal characters in her thirties potter published the highly successful children s book the tale of peter rabbit in 1902 potter eventually went on to publish 23 children s books and became a wealthy woman victorian poetry edit see also english poetry victorian poetry alfred lord tennyson ca 1863 the leading poets during the victorian period were alfred lord tennyson robert browning elizabeth barrett browning and matthew arnold the poetry of this period was heavily influenced by the romantics but also went off in its own directions 161 particularly notable was the development of the dramatic monologue a form used by many poets in this period but perfected by robert browning literary criticism in the 20th century gradually drew attention to the links between victorian poetry and modernism 162 tennyson was poet laureate of the united kingdom during much of queen victoria s reign he was described by t s eliot as the greatest master of metrics as well as melancholia and as having the finest ear of any english poet since milton 163 matthew arnold s reputation as a poet has within the past few decades plunged drastically 164 dante gabriel rossetti was a poet illustrator painter and translator he founded the pre raphaelite brotherhood in 1848 with william holman hunt and john everett millais 165 rossetti s art was characterised by its sensuality and its medieval revivalism 166 arthur clough and george meredith are two other important minor poets of this era 151 167 towards the end of the 19th century english poets began to take an interest in french symbolism and victorian poetry entered a decadent fin de siècle phase 168 two groups of poets emerged in the 1890s the yellow book poets who adhered to the tenets of aestheticism including algernon charles swinburne oscar wilde and arthur symons and the rhymers club group that included ernest dowson lionel johnson and irishman william butler yeats yeats went on to become an important modernist in the 20th century 169 also in 1896 a e housman published at his own expense a shropshire lad 170 writers of comic verse included the dramatist librettist poet and illustrator w s gilbert who is best known for his fourteen comic operas produced in collaboration with the composer sir arthur sullivan of which the most famous include h m s pinafore and the pirates of penzance 171 novelist thomas hardy wrote poetry throughout his career but he did not publish his first collection until 1898 so that he tends to be treated as a 20th century poet now regarded as a major poet gerard manley hopkins s poems were published posthumously by robert bridges in 1918 172 american poetry edit main article american poetry america also produced major poets in the 19th century such as emily dickinson and walt whitman america s two greatest 19th century poets could hardly have been more different in temperament and style whitman was a poetic innovator his major work was leaves of grass in which he uses a free flowing verse and lines of irregular length to depict the all inclusiveness of american democracy emily dickinson on the other hand lived the sheltered life of a genteel unmarried woman in small town amherst massachusetts within its formal structure her poetry is ingenious witty exquisitely wrought and psychologically penetrating her work was unconventional for its day and little of it was published during her lifetime victorian drama edit main article theatre in the victorian era see also english drama victorian era nineteenth century theatre theatre in britain and theatre of the united kingdom victorian era 1837 1901 gilbert and sullivan s h m s pinafore a change came in the victorian era with a profusion on the london stage of farces musical burlesques extravaganzas and comic operas that competed with productions of shakespeare s plays and serious drama by dramatists like james planché and thomas william robertson in 1855 the german reed entertainments began a process of elevating the level of formerly risqué musical theatre in britain that culminated in the famous series of comic operas by ...
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