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shoemaker probe in 2000 following an orbital survey of the object 433 eros the dwarf planet ceres and the asteroid 4 vesta two of the three largest asteroids were visited by nasa s dawn spacecraft launched in 2007 hayabusa was a robotic spacecraft developed by the japan aerospace exploration agency to return a sample of material from the small near earth asteroid 25143 itokawa to earth for further analysis hayabusa was launched on 9 may 2003 and rendezvoused with itokawa in mid september 2005 after arriving at itokawa hayabusa studied the asteroid s shape spin topography color composition density and history in november 2005 it landed on the asteroid twice to collect samples the spacecraft returned to earth on 13 june 2010 jupiter edit main article exploration of jupiter tupan patera on jupiter s moon io the exploration of jupiter has consisted solely of a number of automated nasa spacecraft visiting the planet since 1973 a large majority of the missions have been flybys in which detailed observations are taken without the probe landing or entering orbit such as in pioneer and voyager programs the galileo and juno spacecraft are the only spacecraft to have entered the planet s orbit as jupiter is believed to have only a relatively small rocky core and no real solid surface a landing mission is precluded reaching jupiter from earth requires a delta v of 9 2 km s 41 which is comparable to the 9 7 km s delta v needed to reach low earth orbit 42 fortunately gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required at launch to reach jupiter albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration 41 jupiter has 95 known moons many of which have relatively little known information about them saturn edit main article exploration of saturn saturn has been explored only through uncrewed spacecraft launched by nasa including one mission cassini huygens planned and executed in cooperation with other space agencies these missions consist of flybys in 1979 by pioneer 11 in 1980 by voyager 1 in 1982 by voyager 2 and an orbital mission by the cassini spacecraft which lasted from 2004 until 2017 saturn has at least 62 known moons although the exact number is debatable since saturn s rings are made up of vast numbers of independently orbiting objects of varying sizes the largest of the moons is titan which holds the distinction of being the only moon in the solar system with an atmosphere denser and thicker than that of earth titan holds the distinction of being the only object in the outer solar system that has been explored with a lander the huygens probe deployed by the cassini spacecraft uranus edit main article exploration of uranus the exploration of uranus has been entirely through the voyager 2 spacecraft however there are plans for the chinese tianwen 4 mission to visit it or callisto 43 given its axial tilt of 97 77 with its polar regions exposed to sunlight or darkness for long periods scientists were not sure what to expect at uranus the closest approach to uranus occurred on 24 january 1986 voyager 2 studied the planet s unique atmosphere and magnetosphere voyager 2 also examined its ring system and the moons of uranus including all five of the previously known moons while discovering an additional ten previously unknown moons images of uranus proved to have a uniform appearance with no evidence of the dramatic storms or atmospheric banding evident on jupiter and saturn great effort was required to even identify a few clouds in the images of the planet the magnetosphere of uranus however proved to be unique being profoundly affected by the planet s unusual axial tilt in contrast to the bland appearance of uranus itself striking images were obtained of the moons of uranus including evidence that miranda had been unusually geologically active neptune edit main article exploration of neptune the exploration of neptune began with the 25 august 1989 voyager 2 flyby the sole visit to the system the possibility of a neptune orbiter has been discussed but no other missions have been given serious thought although the extremely uniform appearance of uranus during voyager 2 s visit in 1986 had led to expectations that neptune would also have few visible atmospheric phenomena the spacecraft found that neptune had obvious banding visible clouds auroras and even a conspicuous anticyclone storm system rivaled in size only by jupiter s great red spot neptune also proved to have the fastest winds of any planet in the solar system measured as high as 2 100 km h 44 voyager 2 also examined neptune s ring and moon system it discovered 900 complete rings and additional partial ring arcs around neptune in addition to examining neptune s three previously known moons voyager 2 also discovered five previously unknown moons one of which proteus proved to be the last largest moon in the system data from voyager 2 supported the view that neptune s largest moon triton is a captured kuiper belt object 45 pluto edit main article pluto exploration the dwarf planet pluto presents significant challenges for spacecraft because of its great distance from earth requiring high velocity for reasonable trip times and small mass making capture into orbit difficult at present voyager 1 could have visited pluto but controllers opted instead for a close flyby of saturn s moon titan resulting in a trajectory incompatible with a pluto flyby voyager 2 never had a plausible trajectory for reaching pluto 46 after an intense political battle a mission to pluto dubbed new horizons was granted funding from the united states government in 2003 47 new horizons was launched successfully on 19 january 2006 in early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from jupiter its closest approach to pluto was on 14 july 2015 scientific observations of pluto began five months prior to closest approach and continued for 16 days after the encounter kuiper belt objects edit the new horizons mission also performed a flyby of the small planetesimal arrokoth in the kuiper belt in 2019 this was its first extended mission 48 comets edit main article list of missions to comets comet 103p hartley 2010 although many comets have been studied from earth sometimes with centuries worth of observations only a few comets have been closely visited in 1985 the international cometary explorer conducted the first comet fly by 21p giacobini zinner before joining the halley armada studying the famous comet the deep impact probe smashed into 9p tempel to learn more about its structure and composition and the stardust mission returned samples of another comet s tail the philae lander successfully landed on comet churyumov gerasimenko in 2014 as part of the broader rosetta mission deep space exploration edit main article deep space exploration this high resolution image of the hubble ultra deep field includes galaxies of various ages sizes shapes and colors the smallest reddest galaxies are some of the most distant galaxies to have been imaged by an optical telescope deep space exploration is the branch of astronomy astronautics and space technology that is involved with the exploration of distant regions of outer space 49 physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights deep space astronautics and by robotic spacecraft some of the best candidates for future deep space engine technologies include anti matter nuclear power and beamed propulsion 50 beamed propulsion appears to be the best candidate for deep space exploration presently available since it uses known physics and known technology that is being developed for other purposes 51 future of space exploration edit main article future of space exploration concept art for a nasa vision mission artistic image of a rocket lifting from a saturn moon breakthrough starshot edit main article breakthrough starshot breakthrough starshot is a research and engineering project by the breakthrough initiatives to develop a proof of concept fleet of light sail spacecraft named starchip 52 to be capable of making the journey to the alpha centauri star system 4 37 light years away it was founded in 2016 by yuri milner stephen hawking and mark zuckerberg 53 54 asteroids edit main article exploration of the asteroids an article in the science magazine nature suggested the use of asteroids as a gateway for space exploration with the ultimate destination being mars in order to make such an approach viable three requirements need to be fulfilled first a thorough asteroid survey to find thousands of nearby bodies suitable for astronauts to visit second extending flight duration and distance capability to ever increasing ranges out to mars and finally developing better robotic vehicles and tools to enable astronauts to explore an asteroid regardless of its size shape or spin furthermore using asteroids would provide astronauts with protection from galactic cosmic rays with mission crews being able to land on them without great risk to radiation exposure artemis program edit main article artemis program the artemis program is an ongoing crewed spaceflight program carried out by nasa u s commercial spaceflight companies and international partners such as esa 55 with the goal of landing the first woman and the next man on the moon specifically at the lunar south pole region artemis would be the next step towards the long term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the moon laying the foundation for private companies to build a lunar economy and eventually sending humans to mars in 2017 the lunar campaign was authorized by space policy directive 1 using various ongoing spacecraft programs such as orion the lunar gateway commercial lunar payload services and adding an undeveloped crewed lander the space launch system will serve as the primary launch vehicle for orion while commercial launch vehicles are planned for use to launch other elements of the campaign 56 nasa requested 1 6 billion in additional funding for artemis for fiscal year 2020 57 while the u s senate appropriations committee requested from nasa a five year budget profile 58 which is needed for evaluation and approval by the u s congress 59 60 as of 2026 the first artemis mission was launched in 2022 with the second mission a crewed lunar flyby launched in april 2026 61 construction on the lunar gateway is underway with initial capabilities set for the 2025 2027 timeframe 62 the first clps lander landed in 2024 marking the first us spacecraft to land since apollo 17 63 rationales edit main article space advocacy astronaut buzz aldrin had a personal communion service when he first arrived on the surface of the moon the research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies such as nasa and roscosmos is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses economic analyses of the nasa programs often showed ongoing economic benefits such as nasa spin offs generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program 64 it is also argued that space exploration would lead to the extraction of resources on other planets and especially asteroids which contain billions of dollars worth of minerals and metals such expeditions could generate substantial revenue 65 in addition it has been argued that space exploration programs help inspire youth to study in science and engineering 66 space exploration also gives scientists the ability to perform experiments in other settings and expand humanity s knowledge 67 another claim is that space exploration is a necessity to humankind and that staying on earth will eventually lead to extinction some of the reasons are lack of natural resources comets nuclear war and worldwide epidemic stephen hawking renowned british theoretical physicist said i don t think the human race will survive the next thousand years unless we spread into space there are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet but i m an optimist we will reach out to the stars 68 author arthur c clarke 1950 presented a summary of motivations for the human exploration of space in his non fiction semi technical monograph interplanetary flight 69 he argued that humanity s choice is essentially between expansion off earth into space versus cultural and eventually biological stagnation and death these motivations could be attributed to one of the first rocket scientists in nasa wernher von braun and his vision of humans moving beyond earth the basis of this plan was to develop multi stage rockets capable of placing satellites animals and humans in space development of large winged reusable spacecraft capable of carrying humans and equipment into earth orbit in a way that made space access routine and cost effective construction of a large permanently occupied space station to be used as a platform both to observe earth and from which to launch deep space expeditions launching the first human flights around the moon leading to the first landings of humans on the moon with the intent of exploring that body and establishing permanent lunar bases assembly and fueling of spaceships in earth orbit for the purpose of sending humans to mars with the intent of eventually colonizing that planet 70 known as the von braun paradigm the plan was formulated to lead humans in the exploration of space von braun s vision of human space exploration served as the model for efforts in space exploration well into the twenty first century with nasa incorporating this approach into the majority of their projects 70 the steps were followed out of order as seen by the apollo program reaching the moon before the space shuttle program was started which in turn was used to complete the international space station von braun s paradigm formed nasa s drive for human exploration in the hopes that humans discover the far reaches of the universe nasa has produced a series of public service announcement videos supporting the concept of space exploration 71 overall the u s public remains largely supportive of both crewed and uncrewed space exploration according to an associated press poll conducted in july 2003 71 of u s citizens agreed with the statement that the space program is a good investment compared to 21 who did not 72 human nature edit space advocacy and space policy 73 regularly invokes exploration as a human nature 74 topics edit main articles space science and human presence in space spaceflight edit main articles spaceflight and astronautics delta v s in km s for various orbital maneuvers spaceflight is the use of space technology to achieve the flight of spacecraft into and through outer space spaceflight is used in space exploration and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications additional non commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories reconnaissance satellites and other earth observation satellites a spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch which provides the initial thrust to overcome...
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